NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION,
ORGANIZED 1882.
Vol. VII. September,' 1892. No. 1.
This Association, as « Body, is not responsible for the stalemenis or opinions of any of us members.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ELEVENTH ANNUAL CONVENTION, Holyoke, Mass., June 8, 9 and 10, 1892.
The sessions of the Eleventh Annual Convention of the Association were heid in Hamilton Hall, Holyoke, Mass., on Wednesday afternoon and evening, June 8th, and on Thursday morning and evening, June 9th. The headquarters of the Association were at the Hotel Hamilton.
AFTERNOON SESSION. Wenpnespay, June 8, 1892.
The convention was called to order by President Holden, who spoke as follows :
It is a pleasant duty to welcome so many old acquaintances here today in this busy manufacturing city. When it was decided that we should hold our meeting at Holyoke there were grave fears that we should have but a limited attendance from the eastern section of New England, but the present appearance indicates that every section will be well represented. I now have the pleasure of presenting to you the Hon. Jeremiah F. Sullivan, mayor of the city of Holyoke. (Applause.)
ADDRESS OF WELCOME BY MAYOR SULLIVAN.
Gentlemen of the New England Water Works Association :—It becomes my pleasant duty to welcome you to Holyoke, and I am pleased that you have chosen our city as the place for holding your convention for the year 1892, and I trust that the result of your deliberations here may be of advantage to the people at large, and that your stay among us may be a source of pleasure to yourselves. We also feel honored by the presence here of your honorable body.
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It is claimed, and I think generally conceded, that in the department of engineering, America stands at the head of the world. The grasp of the American engineer seems to be on a scale commensurate with the great extent of the country. Engineering works greater in number and upon a more extensive scale have been entered upon and executed here than in any other part of the world, and your profession has done more than any other to develop the resources of the country. We hope that you will continue to hold and strengthen your position at the head.
As the states, cities and towns increase in population, the question of water supply becomes of great importance. Massachusetts in particular has been called the state of cities, and the question is perhaps of more importance here than in any of the other New England states, though it is of much importance everywhere.
The question of water supply comes very near home to us here in Holyoke, because a great water power is the foundation of our city. The question is also interesting to us in another aspect—how to secure sufficient water for domestic purposes. We have already appropriated all the water from available streams and ponds, and the growth of our city requires us to seek further facilities for water supply. How best to utilize for the benefit of man the waters of adjacent brooks, rivers and ponds is a useful and interesting study, and the discussions of your associ- tion must be of great benefit in this respect. We shall be pleased if our city shall furnish you with a favorable field for your labors and discussions.
Without wishing to take up any more of your valuable time, I again heartily welcome you to Holyoke. (Applause.)
Tae Presment. Mr. Mayor, in behalf of the New England Water Works Association I thank you most heartily for the welcome you have given us, and extend an invitation to you or any of the citizens of Holyoke to attend at any of our sessions.
The regular order of business was taken up, the reading of the records of the last meeting being dispensed with,
ELECTION OF NEW MEMBERS. The Secretary presented the following list of applicants for membership, all of which had been properly endorsed, approved by the executive committee, and recommended to the Association for election :
RESIDENT ACTIVE MEMBERS,
George K. Crandall, Assistant Engineer, New London, Conn. 8. G. Stoddard, Jr., Engineer Hydraulic Co., Bridgeport, Conn. Robert J. Thomas, Superintendent, Lowell, Mass.
Joseph B. Rider, Civil Engineer, South Norwalk, Conn.
Luther C. Wright, Superintendent, Northampton, Mass.
Waldo E. Rawson, Superintendent, Uxbridge, Mass.
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION.
NON-RESIDENT ACTIVE.
G. H. Benzenberg, City Engineer, Milwaukee, Wis.
Hugh F. Doran, Superintendent, Port Huron, Mich.
E: L. Dunbar, Superintendent, Bay City, Mich.
John Erwin, Secretary and Treasurer, Middleton Water Supply Co., Bridgetown, Nova Scotia.
D. W. French, Superintendent, Hackensack High Service Water Works, Weehawken, N. J.
James 8, Haring, Civil Engineer, Fort Madison, Iowa.
William R. Hill, Chief Engineer, Syracuse, N. Y.
Jacob L. Kuehn, Superintendent, York, Penn.
R. G. E. Leckie, Constructing Engineer, Middleton, Nova Scotia.
Thomas H. McLaughlin, Superintendent, Texarkana, Ark.
George W. Wright, Chief Engineer,.Norfolk, Va.
J.W. Ridpath, Secretary and Manager, Jenkintown, Pa.
George H. Robertson, Superintendent, Yarmouth, Nova Scotia.
L. J. Wagner, Superintendent, Rome, Ga.
John Thomson, Hydraulic Engineer, 408 Temple Court, New York city.
Everett L. Abbott, Civil Engineer, 708 8th Avenue, New York city.
ASSOCIATE MEMBERSHIP,
Crosby Steam Gage and Valve Co., Geo. H. Eager, Treasurer, Boston, Mass.
Meter Register Co., 52 Illinois St., Chicago, Ill.
G. H. Moore, Water Filters, Norwich, Conn,
The Hydraulic Construction Co., Wm. d’H. Washington, Manager, 145 Broadway, New York city.
On motion of Mr. Brackett the Secretary was authorized and directed to cast the ballot of the Association in behalf of the nominees whese names have been read, and they were declared elected.
The President then delivered his annual address.
ADDRESS OF PRESIDENT HOLDEN,
Gentlemen of the New England Water Works Association:—We are now for the eleventh time assembled together in annual convention, and a decade of years has passed over our heads, since a small company of us assembled at Young’s Hotel, in Boston, and organized the New England Water Works Association. At our first annual meeting we had a membership of 25, eighteen of whom are still with us. Today we have 312 Active, 74 Associate and 5 Honorary members, making a total membership roll of 391. Our organization from the beginning has shown a steady increase, and today I am happy to report that our Treasurer has a balance on hand of $1,908.28. The usual number of meetings have been held during the past year and the attendance has been good, notwithstanding that the prevailing dis- temper last winter kept many of our most regular attendants confined to their homes. Last September we accepted an invitation from the Standard Thermometer Co. to visit their manufactory at Peabody, and were made
4 JOURNAL OF THE
conversant with their electrical appliances for-indicating the height of water in reservoirs and stand pipes, together with many other electrical appliances which are manufactured at their factory. By having the fall meeting held in some central locality, it serves to draw together more members than a long pleasure and sight seeing excursion can do. There were several very interesting and instructive papers presented at the winter meetings, particularly the paper by Mr. Forbes on Alge and Infusoria, the paper by Mr. Stearns on the selection of sources of water supply, and the illustrated description of the East Jersey Co.’s new water supply for the city of Newark, by Mr. Shirreffs. The study of Alge and vegetable growths in our streams, ponds and reservoirs should interest every Superintendent in the country, and we as an Association should act in conjunction with the Boards of Health from each state, to endeavor to procure such legislation as is necessary to prevent the further contamina- tion of our brooks and rivers by sewage and factory refuse. Within a few years the theory has been advanced that disease germs are carried for long distances in our running streams. This has already caused the water and ice supply of several of our large cities to be looked upon with disfavor, and may in time seriously affect one of the largest winter industries of Eastern New England, and if this is really as bad as has been represented, our Association ought to educate itself still farther on this subject. It isa source of gratification to know that we have as members of our Associa- tion, men who are devoting a large portion of their time to the study of these problems, which are now brought to our attention, and while we as Superintendents are not expected to all be conversant with the laws of Chemistry and Biology, we have the satisfaction of knowing that right here in our New England Association we can get the best advice in the country upon all matters pertaining to water supply and purification.
Among other matters which will be brought to your attention will be the selection of a place for our next annual meeting. Since our organization, we have held our annual meetings in eleven different cities, viz :—Boston, Worcester, Lowell, Springfield, New Bedford, Manchester, Providence, Fall River, Portland, Hartford and Holyoke, and our Association is now so large in membership that I question whether there are in New England many other places that can give us the necessary accommodation for holding a three days’ session. Of the 325 Water Works in New England 102 are represented in this Association, and 60 of these are located within 50 miles, or less than two hours ride from Boston. There are forty-nine works within 50 miles of Boston that are not represented in this Association, and it appears to me that the greatest benefits can be received by having our meetings held where we can draw together the largest num- ber of members.
Another suggestion which I wish to offer is in regard to a change of the time for holding the annual meeting. We are all aware that the month of June, although the most beautiful month in the year, for us here in New England it is also the busiest. Work such as ours can be done more economically now than late in the season, and many of the members who
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION. 5
would like to join us in these meetings are kept away on account of re- sponsibilities which they cannot intrust to any one else, and if we could resolve one of the other quarterly meetings into a three days’ session during which time we could attend strictly to business, then the June meeting might be reserved for either sight seeing or gathering information from any of our Associate members, who might invite us to inspect their manufactories or to show us the working of any novelties or standard articles.
The matter of securing permanent headquarters which was brought to your attention last year by President Noyes, is to be considered by a committee appointed for that purpose. Our finances may not be in condition to warrant this inovation just at present, but I trust that the time is not far distant, when we can afford to have good quarters, centrally located, and with a permanent secretary that will devote his whole time to Association business. He could compile all the reports from the different water departments throughout the country, and also collect all other information relating to Water Works, together with making drawings and blue prints of designs and Water Works appurtenances, and by so doing we might in a short time get together the most valuable Water Works library in the world. Our Associate members also could keep a permanent exhibit there, and would soon find that this was the most satisfactory way of placing their goods before the market.
At this time I wish to impress upon the members of this Association the importance of preserving our printed records of proceedings, together with the journals, by binding them in some durable form. Several of the back numbers are already out of print, and if those of you who now have them, will take the trouble to get them bound, you will find them now more valuable for reference on matters relating to Water Works, than any other work that is published in this country.
It can be hardly expected with an Association numerically as large as ours, that a year could pass by without the hand of death making inroads upon our membership. This year it becomes my sad duty to report the loss of two of our number, James Davidson, Superintendent of Central City, Colorado, and Samuel B. Leach, Civil Engineer of Tarrytown, New York. Both had been connected with this Association about three years, and had their lives been spared, would doubtless have proved valuable members. .
In conclusion I wish to return my sincere thanks to all who have so ably assisted me in making every méeting of this Association one of interest. With the continued efforts of such officers as our present Secretary and Board of Editors, the New England Water Works Association is bound to prosper. (Applause.)
I have a painful duty to perform now in the announcement of the death of one of our oldest members, Robert M. Gow, late Superintendent of the Medford Water Works. I only heard of his death about an hour ago. Mr. Gow was one of the organizers of our Association, and was a man of large experience in everything pertaining to Water Works, and was a regular attendant at our annual meetings.
We will now hear the Secretary’s report.
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ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
New Encianp Water Works SaIED, l OFFICE OF THE SECRETAR New Buprorp, Mass., June ist, 1892, j To tae Mempers or THE New ENGLAND WatER Works ASsoctiATION :
Gentlemen—Your Secretary herewith presents his report for the year ending May 3ist, 1892 :
On June ist, 1891, the membership of this Association was as fol- lows, viz: Active members
Honorary members Associate members
During the year there has been a loss of thirty-one members from the following stated causes :
Suspended for non-payment of dueS............ cc. cee eee cece ee cee teens
Thirty-six applications for membership have been presented for your consideration, all of which have received favorable action.
The membership at this date is— Active members Honorary members Associate members
And the net gain for the year has been only 5 members.
Your Secretary has made 433 collections, which may thus be itemized :
From advertisements «initiation fees
,
All of which has been paid to the Treasurer. Respectfully submitted, R. C. P. COGGESHALL, Secretary.
On motion of Mr. Richards, the report was accepted and ordered printed.
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION.
Mr. Nevons, the Treasurer, then submitted his annual report.
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE TREASURER.
Mr. President and Gentlemen: I herewith submit my report as Treasurer of the New England Water Works Association for the year ending June 7th, 1892:
Hiram Nevons, Treas.,>1N AccounT wiTH THE New Enauanp WarTER Worxs Association.
1891. June 23 To balance on hand July 23 “ Interest paid Treas. by Camb. Savings Bank....... ; Oct. 13 ‘ payment by R. C. P. Coggeshall Dec. 19 “ 1 re vi " 1892. June 1 “ee sé 6 “é 6e Accrued interest Cambridge Savings bank Accrued Interest Cambridgeport Savings bank $5,186.82 1891. Cr. June 23 By payment to Rockwell & Churchill $288.02 ae «« Francis L. Pratt Charles H. Stacy L. Barker & Co Julius A. Kellogg Putnam Phalanx S. N. Benedict
W. Rogets & Co Heliotype Print Co W. H. Richards Heliotype Print Co The Day Pub. Co George E. Starr
R. C. P. Coggeshall
Mercury Pub. Co
Hartshorn’s Orchestra
Ji. Ki... Whipple... 660.050 eu RR acon ene The Day Pub. Co
W. H. Richards
20.00
$1,799.79
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Amount brought forward............... DLGe cee Vanwed $1,799.79 Jan. 23 4p 9 EI aka sd Samet asia eye 14.10 ac meh ig Oe AIO ene pis ce ena s keee tee 29.50 Feb. 9 “ $i Ts OO ha Sok Se ne cates Hudened 3.70 “ee ! ig ‘* Hartshorn’s Orchestra ... ... .......... 20.00 Rec lnee se A 2s ae si G ae ox ween es cace ong te Mch. 12 ” “* W.H. Richards..... EARN DC RED 98.82 ec $ ‘¢ Hartshorn’s Orchestra...... ............ 20.00 Ate: “9 64 ND: Scace Se eaeecses sgt ed 15.50 ic 2 - ee |S 6” Re ener ear a 208.20 et ” ‘* Bacon & Burpee...... Scwcao nus thks .«. 52.50 2 : o0" ER APR EES 0; oo 0s coos cass ew aes 32.50 Apr. 4 sy ‘SNE I ecg. sxe Saas Vows oe be 36.00 an 39 “ Ot, EE de OE «wince av wick iv aeiwbn Wee vices 6.00 May 11 “a ‘* Heliotype Print Co........:.... .. ee eae (if * BE UNE OOO aw esitinse® oo 6 danse sce vs 10.78 June 2 - ON <a 8 Rope Cocke ak abe wee 97.97 wo 4s as OME ck ad seb eokkn cog sskwhassees 8.25 a4... 06 “ 0B 0. Pe SN Sis hn MA 250.00 nas ” " * Mer: Baas Po dus weaguete 124 68 <“< se +: Sieeare. POC Oi. écbins e565 o5 sons aces 141,75 ss as 2 Of: ee EE BOR OO. ccaca ss cincae esvaves <3 274.50 Balance on hand National City bank...... ep di $306. 42 Camb. Savings bank................. $500.00 Sak, 0 Rs a os not sas Mas 2.12— 602.12 Cambridgeport Savings bank... ...... 1,000 00 : Bah Re: Fem WR ions 6 vk: gs 0s gee can 99.74—1,099.74 1,908.28 $5,186.82
HIRAM NEVONS, Treasurer.
Mr. Nevons. I wish to say further, in explanation of the balance, $1,908.28, that there were certain bills which have been paid this year which should have been paid and rendered in last year’s account. The report shows an apparent loss, whereas, if those bills had been paid last year as they should have been, the report would show a gain.
Tue Presmwent. I believe there are no outstanding debts now.
Mr. Nevons. I know of but.one small one. There is nothing that should rightly come into this year.
On motion of Mr. Brackett, the report was accepted and ordered to be printed.
, The Secretary read a communication from Mr. George A. Ellis enclosing a paper entitled, ‘Two Methods of Obtaining Fire Protection by Direct High Pressure from Water Works Pumps in Combined Pumping and Reservoir or Stand Pipe Systems.”
28
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NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION. 9
REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON BADGES.
Tue Presment. I will call upon Mr. Brackett, chairman of the special committee appointed at the last convention to consider the question of a badge for the members of the Association, to present the report of that committee.
Mr. Brackett presented the following report : To THE MemBers OF THE NEw ENGLAND WATER Works ASSOCIATION :
Gentlemen :—At the last annual convention of this Association, the under- signed were appointed to consider and report to the Association at some subsequent meeting upon the question of a badge for the Association.
The subject has been agitated to a greater or less extent for some time and it appears to your committee that some distinctive badge should be worn by the Active and Associate members of the Association, particularly at the annual conventions.
For a number of years it has been the custom to furnish each member attending the convention with asmall bow of red, white or blue ribbon which has been a sufficiently distinctive badge but which has had no particular applicability to the objects of our Association and is not of a permanent character.
A design has been obtained and is herewith submitted with the recom- mendation that it be adopted as the permanent and official badge of the Association. The badge as proposed will be in the form of a separable button about five-eighths of an inch in diameter, bearing on its face a gold fountain upon a ground of blue or white enamel, encircled by the words New England Water Works Association in gold letters, the front of the button to be of gold and the back of gold plate. The cost of these buttons will be about 75 cents each.
A button of similar design, but of cheaper material and workmanship can be obtained for twelve dollars a gross or about eight cents each, but your committee does not recommend its use.
It appears to your committee to be very desirable that every person attending the annual convention should be provided with a badge desig- nating whether they are Active members, Associate members or guests, and as it is probable that the permanent badge will not be universally worn, we recommend that the use of the present ribbon badges be continued in connection with the permanent badge.
Respectfully Submitted, DEXTER BRACKETT, F. W. WHITLOCK, WM. R. BILLINGS.
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Mr. Ricuarps. It has always seemed to me desirable that we have a distinctive badge, and I heartily concur with the report of the committee. I move that the report be accepted, and that the Secretary be instructed to procure the necessary badges as recommended by the committee. Adopted.
The committee on “Uniformity in the preparation of the Annual Report” were given further time.
The Secretary then read Mr. Ellis’ paper on Fire Protection.
The President called upon Mr. Garrett to open the discussion upon Topic 1, “The Proper Coating of Cast’ Iron Pipe,” and he was followed by Mr. Brackett.
Mr. Byron I. Cook then read a paper in which he detailed the circum- stances attending the detection of a waste of water on the Woonsocket, R. L, works ; and Mr. Walker of Manchester caused a little laughter by his efforts to find out the proper charge to be made against a man who was detected in stealing water.
The convention then proceeded to consider the second topic for discussion, ‘Is it Desirable to have Water Pipe Cast with the Bell End Down?” The discussion was opened by Mr. Brackett, and it was partici- pated in by ‘the President, Mr. Richards, Mr. Rogers, Mr. Washington, Mr. Nevons, Mr. Garrett, Mr. Billings and Mr. Walker. At the close of the discussion the convention adjourned until evening.
EVENING SESSION.
At the evening session Mr. Frank L. Fuller of Boston read a paper
entitled ‘Description of Water Works at Franklin, N. H.” He was followed by Mr. John R. Freeman, of Boston, with a paper on “The Arrangement of Hydrants and Water Pipes for the Protection of a City Against Fire.” Mr. Brackett of Boston presented some facts in regard to the distribution system insome of the larger cities of the country.
An invitation was received from the Deane Steam Pump Co. for the members to visit their works in the morning. The convention then adjourned to Thursday at 9 a. m.
MORNING SESSION.
Tuurspay, June 9th, 1892.
At the opening of the morning session the President called upon Mr. George A. Stacy, of Marlboro, who read a paper in which he gave an account of an experiment with a device for forcing hydrants off the ends of pipes. Mr. Dyer, of Portland, related a similar experience, and Mr. Fuller, the President, and Mr. Hyde took part in the discussion.
The next paper was by R. A. Robertson, Jr., of Providence. It gave the history and description of the Venturi Water Meter. It was discussed by Mr. Richards, Mr. Stearns, Mr. Fuller and Mr. Noyes.
The convention then proceeded with the regular order of business for the morning session.
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION. OFFICERS 1892-'93.
The committee to nominate officers for the ensuing year submitted the following report ;
President—George F, Chace, Taunton, Mass.
Vice-Presidents—George E. Batchelder, Worcester, Mass.; Willis E. McAllister, Calais, Me.; F..P. Webster, Lakeport, N. H,; John L. Congdon, East Greenwich, R. L; J. A. Butler, Portland, Conn.; F, H. Crandall, Burlington, Vt. '
Secretary—R. C. P. Coggeshall, New Bedford, Mass.
Treasurer — Hiram Nevons, Cambridgeport, Mass.
Senior Editor—Dexter Brackett, Boston, Mass.
Junior Editor—Walter H. Richards, New London, Conn.
Executive Committee—Frank E. Hall, Quincy, Mass.; Joseph G. Tenney, Leominister, Mass.; George A. Stacy, Marlboro, Mass.
Finance Committee—F. A. Andrews, Nashua, N. H.; A. R. Hathaway, Springfield, Mass.; J. L. Harrington, Cambridge, Mass.
On motion of Mr. Ringrose the report of the committee was accepted and on motion of Mr. Noyes the Secretary was instructed to cast the ballot of the Association for the nominees, which he did, and they were declared elected.
Tue Presmpent. I am confident I express the sentimentof every member of this Association when I say you have made an admirable selection in choosing Mr. George F. Chace, Superintendent of the Taunton Water Works, to preside over your deliberations for the ensuing year.
THE FALL MEETING.
Mr. Beals, Superintendent, Middleboro, Mass, on behalf of the Water Board, extended a cordial invitation to the members of the Association to hold their September meeting in Middleboro. He also presented a communication from the Commercial Club of that town, joining in the invitation. And also in behalf of his associates on the Board of Selectmen, Mr. Beals still further extended the offer of hospitalities
On motion of Mr Noyes it was voted to accept the invitation, and the Secretary was instructed to convey the thanks of the Association to the Water Board, the Commercial Club and the Selectmen.
PLACE FOR HOLDING THE ANNUAL CONVENTION.
Tue Presmwent. The place to hold our next annual convention is the next business for consideration, and I would like to hear an expression from the members as to where we shall go. I will call on our Senior Editor, Mr. Brackett, for his opinion.
' Mr. Brackett. As I am asked for my opinion on the subject I may per- haps take the liberty to digress a little, and to give my ideas upon the general question of the annual meeting. I think the time has come when
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it would be well to make, as you suggested in your opening address, Mr. President, some change in the time of holding the annual meeting. It seems to me it would be much better, considering how all of our Active members are engaged at this season of the year, to hold the meeting during the winter, or in March. We might perhaps have one meeting earlier in the season than has been, our custom, say in November, similar to those that we are in the habit of having during the winter. That would give us then five meetings during the year, andif we wished to have a fall meeting or an excursion that could be arranged at the pleasure of the Association each year, without having any stated time for it. As this change would require an amendment of the Constitution, I would move that a committee of three be appointed by the President to consider and report at the December meeting any changes in the Constitution which they may deem advisable.
The motion was adopted, and the President subsequently appointed as the committee Messrs. Brackett, Coggeshall and Richards.
On motion of Mr. Brackett it was further voted that the Executive Committee decide the place of the next annual convention.
NEW MEMBERS ELECTED.
The Secretary read the following applications for Resident Active Mem- bership, which had been properly endorsed and approved.
B. R. Felton, City Engineer, Marlboro, Mass.
Allen Hazen, Chemist State Experimental Station, Lawrence, Mass.
Charles L. Knapp; Clerk of Water Board, Lowell, Mass.
Thomas W. Mann, Civil Engineer, Holyoke, Mass.
On motion of Mr. Richards the convention directed the Secretary to cast the ballot of the Association in favor of the above named gentlemen, which he did, and they were declared elected.
John L. Harrington, of Cambridge, read a paper entitled ‘‘A Canal Siphon in Cambridge.”
Professor Sedgwick read a paper by Professor Thomas M. Drown of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology on ‘‘The Effect of Aeration of Water and Sewage.” He was followed by Mr. Stearns, and after remarks by Mr. Mann the convention adjourned until evening.
EVENING SESSION.
At the evening session William L. Sedgwick, Professor of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Chief Biologist to the State Board of Health of Massachusetts, read a paper, illustrated by the stereopticon, entitled, ‘‘The Purification of Drinking Water by Sand Filtration ; Its Theory, Practice and Results; with Special Reference to American Needs and European Experience.” Mr. Stearns, Mr. Noyes, Mr. Hazen and the President took part in the diicussion which followed the
reading of the paper.
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION. 13
W. F. Cleveland, Superintendent of Brockton, Mass., and E. H. Reynolds, Commissioner of Brockton, were elected to Active membership in the Asso- ciation. :
Mr Waker. I would like to make a motion before the convention adjourns that the thanks of the Association be tendered to our retiring President, Mr. Holden, of New Hampshire, now, you know, (laughter) for the able manner in which he has presided over our deliberations during the past year. We have had good presidents right along, and I don’t think you made any mistake when you took one from New Hampshire.
The motion was put by the Secretary and adopted with applause.
Mr. Hotpen. Gentlemen, you are all aware that as a speaker I have never been considered much of a success, and I can only say now that it has always been a work of pleasure for me to do what I could to advance the interests of this Association. (Applause.) I heartily thank you for the assistance you have given me during the past year. I will now surrender my position to my successor, Mr. Chace. (Applause.)
Presmwent Cuace. Members of the Association: I thank you for the honor you have conferred upon me, and I assure youl feel it is an honor to preside over such a body of men. I may not be young in years, but I am young in the Water Works business, Something like four years ago I knew no more about managing a Water Works than a child. I was invited by the Water Commissioners of Taunton to succeed Mr. Billings. I felt very much as Cesar must have felt when he crossed the Rubicon and didn’t know what the result might be. But Inever did have much respect for a man who didn’t have courage, and I resolved to plunge in and take the chances. Every man, you know, feels very comfortable, when he has just won a fight, especially if no blood has been shed. I found the Taunton Water Works in a good condition. They had been well managed in a mechanical way, but like many other cities to which allusion has been made, it possessed a supply not altogether satisfactory in some respects. The reasons for the condition in which it was, have been partly sug- gested in the paper you have listened to tonight. I considered it my duty as the superintendent to find out what there was in the supply of Taunton which was not right and why it was not right. I knew very little about such things when I took charge of the works, but you honored me with membership in this society, and I learned a good deal from the members of this Association. And if I have had any success in the management of our works it is due very largely to you. And 1 assure you that if this society succeeds in the future it will be due in the coming year not to the President, but to you, the members of the Association. I shall endeavor to do my duty, and I know you will do yours. But you do not wish to hear a long speech at this time, and I will defer any further remarks until some other occasion. (Applause.)
On motion of Mr. Fuller the thanks of the Association were tendered the Parsons Paper company, the Merrick Thread company and the Deane Steam Pump company for attentions shown.
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On motion of Mr. Mann a vote of thanks was tendered Professor
Sedgwick for his very able paper. On motion of Mr. Richards the convention adjourned.
The social features of the convention were more extensive than usual and were thoroughly enjoyed and appreciated. Through the courtesy of the Deane Steam Pump company visits were made by members and ladies to the Parsons Paper mills, the Merrick Thread mill and the works of the Deane Steam Pump company. The members were much interested in the systematic arrangement of the latter works, the details of which were explained by the courteous attaches of the company. Under the escort of Mr. L, E. Bellows and Mrs. Bellows the members and ladies listened to an organ recital in the Second Congregational church by William Churchill Hammond. The works of the Holyoke Machine company were also visited.
On Friday morning at the invitation of the Board of Water Commission- ers a visit was made to the reservoirs supplying the city with water. The entertainment concluded on Friday afternoon with a trip to Mount Holyoke on the invitation of the Deane Steam Pump company, and under the escort of Mr. Charles P. Deane, Mr. L. E. Bellows and Mrs. Bellows, and Mr. C.L. Newcomb and Mrs. Newcomb. About seventy-five members, ladies and guests, were taken by railto Mt. Tom station where they were ferried across the Connecticut river and from there conveyance was furnished by barges to the foot of Mt. Holyoke. The ascent of 600 feet was made by most of the party on the cable road, a few preferring to climb the 522 steps to the summit. The party after enjoying the magnificent view from the summit were served with lunch at the Prospect House.
During the return trip while waiting for the train at Mt. Tom station the Association was called'to order by President Chace and on motion of Mr. Decker a vote of thanks was tendered to the Deane Steam Pump company, Mr. Charles P. Deane, Mr. and Mrs. L. E. Bellows, Mr. and Mrs. C. L. New- comb and the Water Board and Superintendent of Water Works of the city of Holyoke. The party returned to Holyoke in time for the late afternoon trains enthusiastically expressing their gratitude for the liberality of their entertainers.
LIST OF EXHIBITS BY ASSOCIATE MEMBERS AT THE CONVENTION.
National Meter Co., New York city, Water Meters.
Hersey Manufacturing Co., Boston, Mass., Water Meters.
Union Water Meter Co., Worcester, Mass., Water Meters.
Thomson Meter Co., Brooklyn, N. Y., Water Meters.
Anthony P. Smith, Newark, N. J., Machine for Tapping Mains. Henry R. Worthington, New York, Water Meters.
R. D. Wood, Philadelphia, Pa., Gates and Hydrants.
Michigan Brass and Iron Works, Detroit, Mich., Gates and Hydrants.
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION.
15
Chapman Valve Mfg. Co., Indian Orchard, Mass., Gates, Hydrants and
Valves.
Taunton Locomotive Works, Taunton, Mass., Service Boxes and Lead
Furnace.
Crosby Steam Gage and Valve Co., Gages, Valves and Gage Testing
Machine.
Walworth Mfg. Co., Boston, Mass., Hall Tapping Machine, Valves, Cocks
and Tools.
Chicago Meter Register Co., Chicago, Meter Register.
Ross Valve Co., Troy, N. Y., Balance Valves, Gates and Water Engines. King and Goddard, Boston, Mass., Service and Valve Boxes.
The Fairbanks Co., Boston, Mass., Renewable Asbestos Seat Gates, Valves
and Swing Checks.
Holyoke Hydrant and Iron Works, Holyoke, Mass., Hydrants.
Perrin, Seamans & Co., Boston, Mass., Construction Tools.
Moore Filter Co., Holyoke, Mass., Filters.
Rudolph Brandt, New York city, Selden Packing.
Hydraulic Construction Co., New York city, Driven and Tube Well
Points.
Deane Steam Pump Co., Holyoke, Mass., Drawings of Steam Pumps.
ATTENDANCE AT CONVENTION HELD IN HOLYOKE JUNE 8, 9 AND 10, 1892.
> ACTIVE MEMBERS.
L. Abbott, of New York city.
W. Ayres, of Hartford, Conn.
H. Baldwin, of Boston, Mass.
R. Baldwin, of Terryville,; Conn.
J. E. Beals, of Middleboro, Mass.
N. B. Bickford, of Boston, Mass.
W. R. Billings, of Taunton, Mass.
Dexter Brackett, of Boston, Mass.
G. F. Chace, of Taunton, Mass.
C. E. Chandler, of Norwich, Conn.
Ezra Clark, of Hartford, Conn.
W. F. Cleveland, of Brockton, Mass.
W. F. Codd, of Nautucket, Mass.
R. C. P. Coggeshall, of New Bedford, _Mass.
B. I. Cook, of Woonsocket, R. I.
F. H. Crandall, of Burlington, Vt.
G. K. Crandall, of New London, Conn.
J. H. Decker, of New York city.
A. N. Dennan, of Des Moines, Iowa.
E. H. C.
C. BR. Dyer, of Portland, Me.
H. L. Eaton, of Somerville, Mass.
J. R. Freeman, of Boston, Mass. Fuller, of Boston, Mass. Gardner, of Norwich, Conn. Glover, of Boston, Mass. Granniss, of New Haven, Conn. Hall, of Quincy, Mass.
C. Hammond, Jr., of Rockville,
Conn.
John L. Harrington, of Cambridge, Mass.
D. A. Harris, of New Britain, Conn.
John C, Haskell, of Lynn, Mass.
M. Hastings, of Cambridge, Mass. A. R. Hathaway, of Springfield, Mass. H. G. Holden, of Nashua, N. H.
A. W. Hunking, of Dayton, Ohio.
H. N. Hyde, of Newtonville, Mass.
D. B. Kempton, of New Bedford, Mass.
F.L E. P A. S 8. F. J.
E. E
16
C, L. Knapp, of Lowell, Mass. J. A. Lockwood, of Yonkers, N. Y. T. W. Mann, of Holyoke, Mass. T. H. McKenzie, of Southington, Conn. W. E. MeNally, of Marlboro, Mass. J. H. Morse, of Natick. Mass. Hiram Nevons, of Cambridge, Mass. E. C. Nichols, of Reading, Mass. A. F. Noyes, of Newton, Mass. E. H. Phipps, of New Haven, Conn. W. E. Rawson, of Uxbridge, Mass. E. H. Reynolds, of Brockton, Mass. W. H. Richards, of New London, Conn. Total, 65.
JOURNAL OF THE
G. J. Ries, of Weymouth, Mass.
J. W. Ringrose,of New Britain,Conn. H. W. Rogers, of Haverhill, Mass. Daniel Russell, of Everett, Mass.
A. H. Salisbury, of Lawrence, Mass. W. T. Sedgwick, of Boston, Mass.
J. D. Shippee, of Holliston, Mass. Geo. A. Stacy, of Marlboro, Mass.
F. P. Stearns, of Boston, Mass.
Wm. P. Swett, of Terryville, Conn. R. J. Thomas, of Lowell, Mass. Chas. K. Walker, of Manchester, N.H. J.C. Whitney, of Newton, Mass.
E. T. Wiswall, of Newton. Mass.
L. C. Wright, of Northampton, Mass.
ASSOCIATE MEMBERS.
L. E. Bellows, representing Deane Steam Pump Co., Holyoke, Mass. J. M. Betton, representing Henry R. Worthington, New York city. H. L. Bond, representing Perrin Seamans & Co , Boston, Mass. Randolph Brandt, representing Seldens Patent Packing, New York city. J. F. Browning, representing the Fairbanks Co., Boston, Mass. . J. H. Carpenter, representing the Fairbanks Co., Boston, Mass. G. H. Carr, representing Union Meter Co., Worcester, Mass. Chas. P. Deane, répresenting Deane Steam Pump Co., Holyoke, Mass. F. W. DeBerard, representing Meter Register Co., Chicago, Il. C. H. Eberle, representing Crosby Steam Gage and Valve Co,, Boston,
Mass.
J. H. Eustis, representing Walworth Mfg. Co., Boston, Mass.
George B. Ferguson, representing H. R. Worthington, New York city.
H. C. Folger, representing Thomson Meter Co., Brooklyn, N. Y.
Jesse Garrett, representing R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia, Pa.
Jason Giles, representing Chapman Valve Mfg. Co., Indian Orchard,
Mass.
J. J. Hart, representing King & Goddard, Boston, Mass.
F. H. Hayes, representing Deane Steam Pump Co., Boston, Mass. FL. Howland, representing the George Woodman Co., Boston, Mass. G. 8. Hoyt, representing George K. Paul & Co., Boston, Mass.
Wm. P. Johnson, representing Mason Regulator Co., Boston, Mass. John C. Kelley, representing National Meter Co.. New York city.
F. 8. King, representing National Meter Co., New York city.
Frank Lambert, representing Thomson Meter Co., New York city..
W. B. Meldon, representing Thomson Meter Co., New York city.
E. B. Miles, representing Deaue Steam Pump Co., Holyoke, Mass.
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION.
G. H. Moore, representing Moore Filter Co., Norwich, Conn.
Chas. L. Newcomb, Deane Steam Pump Co., Holyoke, Mass.
J. P. K. Otis, representing Union Meter Co., Worcester, Mass.
A. M. Pierce, representing Deane Steam Pump Co., Boston, Mass.
B. Frank Polsey, representing Walworth Mfg. Co., Boston, Mass.
R. A. Robertson, Jr., Treasurer Builders Iron Foundry, Providence, R. I. E. L. Ross, representing Chapman Valve Mfg. Co., Indian Orchard, Mass. George Ross, representing Ross Valve company, Troy, N. Y.
A. P. Smith, Connecting Machines, Newark, N. J.
J. E. Spofford, representing Hersey Meter Co., Boston, Mass,
F. E. Stevens, Secretary Peet Valve Co., Boston, Mass.
L. W. Summer, of Summer & Goodwin, Boston, Mass.
J. A. Tilden, representing Hersey Mfg. Co., Boston, Mass.
W. H. Van Wrinkle, representing A. P. Smith, Newark, N. J.
W. d@’H. Washington, representing Hydraulic Construction Co., New York
city.
William Wolfendale, Plumbers Supplies, Fall River, Mass.
Total, 45.
HONORARY MEMBERS.
M. N. Baker, of ‘Engineering News,” New York city. F. W. Sheppard, of ‘Fire and Water,” New York city. €. J. Underwood, dJr., of ‘-Engineering Record,” Boston, Mass.
Total, 3.
GUESTS.
J. P. Bacon, Cambridge, Mass.
Mrs. Chas- H. Baldwin, Boston, Mass.
Mis. J. E. Beals, Middleboro, Mass.
C. H. Beaton, New Britain, Conn.
Mrs. L. E. Bellows, Holyoke, Mass.
A. A. Blossom, Salem, Mass.
Mrs. Dexter Brackett, Boston, Mass.
Mrs. R. Brandt, New York city.
Mrs. R. C. P. Coggeshall, New Bed- ford, Mass.
J. J. Curran, Holyoke, Mass.
Mrs. A. N. Dennan, Des Moines, Ia.
Philip Eley, Bayonne, N. J.
Mrs. A. 8. Glover, West Newton, Mass.
Mrs. Jason Giles, Indian Orchard, Mass.
C. L. Goodhue, Springfield, Mass.
J. H. Hardy, Holyoke, Mass.
Frank A. Holden, Springfield, Mass.
C.F. Holyoke, Marlborough, Mass. Total, 32. Total attendance, 145-
Mrs- John C. Kelley, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Miss C. A. Kelley, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Miss S. E. Kelley, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Mrs. D. B. Kempton, New Bedford, Mass.
Miss M. L. Kirtband, Holyoke, Mass,
Mrs. T. H. McKenzie, Southington, Conn.
Miss Emma McKenzie, Southington, Conn.
.Miss Fannie McKenzie, Southington,
Conn.
Mrs. C. L. Newcomb, Holyoke, Mass.
Miss U. Nichols, New York city.
Mrs. W. H. Richards, New London, Conn.
Mrs. E. L. Ross, Mass.
8S. H. Taylor, New Bedford, Mass.
Mrs, J. H. Tilden, Boston, Mass.
Indian Orchard,
JOURNAL OF THE TOPICAL DISCUSSION.
IS IT DESIRABLE TO HAVE WATER PIPE CAST WITH THE BELL END DOWN?
Mr. Brackett. I should like to know with regard to the experience of the members as to whether they have their pipe cast with the bell end down or up, and as to whether they have any difficulty from the leaking of the pipe at the bell, or whether they ever break the bells in driving joints. My experi- ence has been that pipes cast with the bell down have a much more solid aod clean head, are less liable to shrinkage cracks in the neck, and have sockets of more uniform size and depth than when cast with the bell at the top.
Tue Presrpent. Four years agoI had alot of pipe come which I judged must have been cast with the bell end up, for we had several leaks at the bells and we have never bought any of that company since. The pipe we have bought since I suppose was cast with the bell end down, because occasionally we will find a spigot end where there is an inch or two of rather porous iron, and it is very easy to cut that off.
Mr. Ricuarps. I had quite a long line of pipe cast recently bell end down, and after observing it carefully I came to the conclusion that hereafter I would have it cast bell end up. (Laughter.)
Tue Presmpent- I am glad there are two sides to this question.
Mk. Ricuarps. It seems to me the difference is just here. If you use a shallow bell it is better to have the imperfection there, if there is any, and it is less likely to be in the bell than it is in-the spigot end. It seems to me it is bet- ter to have it in the bell, because, if there is spongy, porous iron in the spigot it is liable to check and run along the pipe and make a leak, or if there is a bad place in the spigot, you have to cut it off ; whereas, if it is in the bell the lead would prevent it from leaking, and it would dono harm. The bell ought to be heavy enough so it will bear caulking, even if it is a little imper- fect. It seems to me that, with a shallow bell, particularly, I had rather have the pipe cast bell end up. With a deep bell it may be that the lead would cover most of the imperfections. I must say I do not agree with the majority of engineers in this, for I believe they prefer to have it cast bell end down.
Mz. Nevons. We are laying about eight miles of pipe this year, all of it cast with the bell end up. When the parties who bid on it told me that that was their method of casting and wanted to know if I had any objections, I wrote to them I would go out to their works before we decided. I went out, and I looked the matter all over, I saw their pipes and examined very care- fully the bell end, and I must say I decided I had rather have the pipes cast with the bells up. Now, if a leak occurs at all you will generally find it on the spigot end of the pipe, and I had rather have the poor iron, if there is any, as Mr, Richards said, in the bell than to have it in the spigot. However, I don’t think you get much poor iron in the bell any way. They won't let the dross go in there, and in all the pipe we have had I haven’t seen any but what looked solid and firm. The bell is a little rougher, and I don’t know but that is allthe better, for it holds the lead. Of course I wouldn’t specify to have
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION. 19
them made rough, but I don’t think it is any objection, for it is going in the ground. ButI do like to have a good solid spigot, a smooth, fair surface around it. and I had rather have the perfect casting on the spigot than to have it in the bell and not have it in the spigot. AsI said before, I don’t believe that you get much poor iron in the bell. If the iron is properly mixed when poured you get a clear mixture all the way up. It seems to me the only objection that any one can raise against casting the pipe with the bell up is that it makes it a little rough, but I myself don’t consider that an objection at all.
Tue Presipent. We would like to-hear from Mr. Rogers.
Mr. Rogers. My preference would be from the experience I have had, to have the bells cast on the bottom. My experience has been that I have more trouble with blow-holes than with dross or bad material, and those seem to occur more particularly on top. Out of alot of 3,000 pieces of 30-inch pipe that we used two years ago, which were cast bells down, we had some ninety pieces broken on the spigot end, showing that there was weakness there ; and on cutting the pips we found it blowy and imperfect, whereas we did aot have an imperfect socket in the whole lot- IfIshould make any change from the ordinary way of casting pipe with the bell down, it would be to cast the pipe six or eight inches longer than I wanted and cut it off above the spigot end, so as to get rid of the porous pipe which comes on top and shows imperfections. I myself would sooner have the socket sound and firm for my spigot end than to have the socket poor, because it makes a more difficult leak to repair where the socket is cracked or broken than where the spigot end is. My experience may not be that of others, and may not be worth speaking of perhaps at all, but such as it has been it is in favor of the pipe being cast socket downward.
Mr. Nevoys. I would like to say that the only case of a blow-hole in a bell I ever had was in a pipe which was cast bell down. (Laughter.)
Tue Presipent. Are you sure it was?
Mr. Nevons- Yes, sir; I am sure of that, for I made special investigation with regard to it.
Tue Presipent. As to this pipe to which I referred that we had four years ago, of course Iam not certain whether it was cast bell down or bell up, but my impression is it must have been cast with the bell up. The pipe was well coated and looked all right, but after it was laid we had several leaks from little blow-holes that showed out through the top of the bell. The bells were four inches deep. These holes must have reached way through into the pipe, and came out through the end of the bell. On examining several of those I had to take up I found they were full of little holes apparently three or four inches in length.
Tue Present. We will be glad to hear from any practical moulder.
Mr. WasuineTon. I can’t say that I am a practical moulder exactly, but ‘when I was a boy I had a mechanical turn, and I got a slight idea of how iron is moulded and how iron acts when being poured. (Mr. Washington described the method of making castings but stated that he had had no experience with pipe casting.) If you can get a perfect spigot at the lower end, I should favor having the bell up from a water works standpoint from the fact I don’t think you will get a great deal of dross.
20 JOURNAL OF THE
Mr. Gasretr. Mr. Washington has certainly given a very practical exposi- tion of the general method of casting. I doubt very much, though, whether in pipe casting’ the effect very often happens, that Mr. Washington refers to, in regard to the chilling of the outside of the pipe when it is being cast. The mould and the core are very recently removed from the ovens, and they are very dry. When the molten iron is poured the straw of the core imme- diately begins to burn, and I think that in itself would to a certain extent pre- vent the chilling of the inside of the pipe, even if it were not almost an im- possibility for it to chill any how to any detriment. Pipes are all cast in dry sand, and both the core and the mould are thoroughly dried and heated in the oven before the pipe is cast.
Now, with regard to casting head up or head down, I think there is about as much diversity of opinion in this Association and among engineers gener- ally as there are patterns in a foundry. (Laughter.) I don’t believe that Mr. Nevons or Mr. Holden or Mr. Brackett can tell when the pipes come to them, whether they are cast head up or head down. (Laughter.) Years ago there was no such thing as casting head down, and now if there is no specification and no inspection, you are just as likely to have your heads cast up as you are to have them cast down, and I don’t believe you will be able to tell when the pipes come to your works whether they have been cast one way or the other. I think, however, there is a good deal to be said on both sides, and I think Mr. Nevon’s idea is a very good one, that if you are going to get bad iron you might just as well have it in one end as in the other. But manufacturers don’t intend to put bad iron into their pipe, and they are very careful that the dross shall not go into their pipes. But suppose that in the last pipe poured with the last of the iron in the ladel, there is some possibility of dross getting into the pipe ; now, there is a question if it is not better for that to be distributed over the greater section of the bell than over the smaller section of the spigot, or whether there isn’t much less danger of the pipe being weakened in any way by the distribution through the greater section. It is a question that is not settled.
Mr. Nzvons. The gentleman (Mr. Garrett) has suggested that we wouldn't any of us know whether our pipe was cast spigot end down or bell end down, If he doesn’t put it into a lathe I shall have to take exception to what he says about it, for I think almost any water works man can tell whether a pipe is cast bell up or bell down.
Mr. Garrett. We do it sometimes. (Laughter.) I admit that there isa method there by which you could tell, by the feather edge. But what I meant was that with regard to the quality and texture of the bell or spigot I didn’t believe one of you would be able to tell.
Tue Presment. I should like to hear an opinion from Mr. Billings. (Applause. )
Mr. Buuies. I have been very much interested in what has been said. Of course every foundryman knows, every one who has had any acquaint- ance with a foundry knows, that on general principles if you want to get good, sound, smooth castings you put the part you wish to get the best in the lower part of the flask, and you get the best iron in the bottom and, on
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION. 21
general principles, the poor iron comes to the top, if there is any poor iron or any dirt or dross of any kind. All I can say about the matter is that I think, as Mr. Garrett has already intimated that this is a question for foundrymen to discuss among themselves, rather than for water works men or engineers. It seems to me that what the engineers have a perfect right to do is to set up a standard which they wish the foundrymen to reach, and then accept the work that on the whole reaches the standard with the best results. But when an engineer tells a foundryman he shall cast his pipe this way, that way or the other, it seems to me, with all due respect to my friends, he is going out of his province, and that the foundryman should be left to use his own judgment, provided he furnishes good pipe and sound pipe and pipe that is what it ought to be. Because so far as I know any- thing about it it is not a question of whether the bell be up or the bell be down. It is a question of the proper materials and pouring and venting and of all the details of practical foundry work which engineers are not supposed to be especially familiar with. And I would suggest that we amend our specifications so that we shall say exactly what kind of pipe we want, and then let the foundrymen manufacture it in the way that seems best to them to produce that result. (Applause )
Mr. Ricnarps. I think Mr. Billings is wrong in his proposition, and that the engineers have a perfect right to specify which end shall be cast down. If they want the honeycombed end the bell end they have a right to say so and have it made so, and if they want it in the spigot end they have a right to say that. Ifthe pipe manufacturers do not care to bid on the specifica-
tion they are not obliged to.
Mr. Brackett. In Boston we require the pipes to be cast with the bell end down because we prefer to have that poor end of the pipe the spigot end. That is the only reason for specifying that the bell end of the pipe should be cast down. Whether it is a question of the poor iron, or of the pipe being honeycombed by the air which collects in it, the fact is that the ends of the pipes are honeycombed. That is a fact which I know from practical experience. And Ihave no doubt but that.if the pipe were cast the other end up the honeycombing would be in the bell end; and in Bos- ton, at least, we prefer to have it in the spigot end.
Mr. Wasuineton. I wish to differ from the gentleman behind me (Mr. Billings.) I think engineers havea right to demand of the foundrymen what they want, but at the same time they ought to know why they demand it. They ought to have sense enough to determine the question from the different results to be obtained by casting bells down or bells up. And sol think it is a very desirable thing to settle this matter one way or the other as to which is the best method, and if a man is going to demand it bell down he ought to be able to give his reasons why it is better bell down.
JOURNAL OF THE
DETECTING A WASTE OF WATER BY Byron I, Coox, Woonsocket, R. I.
Detecting a waste of water is a common occurance with the water superin- tendent, and when located he is oftentimes surprised at the willful neglect and carelessness of the water consumer.
The incident that I am about to relate occured in the month of January 1891, there being at that time about two feet of frost in the ground. It may be well to describe the works at Woonsocket, as in so doing it will illus- trate what I have to say.
The Pumping Station is situated about three miles southeast from the city, and midway between that and the city are located the stand pipes, the stand pipes are connected with pumping station by one of Geo. E. Winslow’s recording gauges graduated to show a variation of three inches equal to 7,343 gallons, the holding capacity being small the daily consumption is very accurately obtained, the supply main from stand pipes is fourteen inches, and runs to the center of city, the arrangement of gates is such that the city can be divided into four sections each being independent of the other.
The city has not any system of sewerage, the Blackstone river passes through it nearly in the shape of the letter S. and every one that can has a sewer of his own connected with the river, and constructed according to his own idea, the variety is great and consists of wooden boxes, blind drains, stone culverts, cracked water pipe, sewer pipe, etc. It will be readily seen that a leak in the water mains could pass off through one of these drains, and into the river and not appear on the surface.
On the morning of Saturday, January 24th, when the engineer telephoned the consumption for the day and night previous, as is the custom, I noticed that the consumption for the night had increased 60,000 gallons. I called his attention to the fact, and told him to report to me at noon if the loss con- tinued during the morning ; at noon he reported the consumption was still large.
Woonsocket had the misfortune, if I may call it that, to have its works built by a company, and, as a consequence, there were some things allowed by the company that would have been different if built by the city, the Water Com- pany allowed the Manufacturing Companies to connect their pipe system with the Water Works system, most of this piping was of light weight and poorly laid. During the past winter I had a chance to examine some of this old pipe, a six-inch main I found less than a quarter-inch thick ; this same pipe has been for the past six years under 110 pounds pressure. As I have wandered from my text it has been only to show where I might expect to find a leak in case of a loss of water. Saturday afternoon was spent in vis- iting the different manufacturing establishments testing their piping and
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION. 23
everything was found allright. Saturday night the loss was about the same as Friday. Sunday the force main was tested andall culverts and waterways visited, but nothing was found. I came to the conclusion that the water was running into the river through some sewer or drain. Sunday night section one was shut off. My method of testing a section is as follows: I shut the water off at about 10:30 Pp. m., stationing a man ata gate to let on the water in case of fire, and at 4:30 a. mM. it is turned on again ; if, on consulting my gauge, Itindthat I have lost water, I have located the leak in that section, then that section is sub-divided until the trouble is located. Monday morning I found the trouble was not in section one. Monday night section two was tried and the leak not located. Tuesday night section three was shut off, a por- tion of this section for about a thousand feet runs parallel toa trench that sup- plies anumber of mills with water. Wednesday morning the gauge showed the usual consumption and I supposed I had located the leak, concluding that the water was making into the trench. Wednesday night after the mills had shut down I had the trench drawn, leaving about two feet of water; procuring a boat I made an examination the entire length of the trench, but did not find anything that indicated a leak in the water mains, After examining the trench I shut off the same section I did the night previous, when, to my sur- prise Thursday morning, I found I had lost water. Thursday and Friday nights two sections were shut off, but the trouble was not located. Saturday night I decided to try the mill supplies again ; the first that I tried was a new concern, and had only been in operation about three months. I shut the gate that controls the supply, and upon opening it I heard water run- ning through. I knew that something was wrong. I telephoned the agent and informed him that there was a leak at his mill. He said he guessed
everything was all right ; that I must be mistaken. I told him that I would meet him at the mill in half an hour and prove to him that he was wrong.
We went through the mill, but could not find anything wrong with the fire supply. As I passed the meter I noticed that it was running very hard; I called his attention to the fact, and asked what he was using water for in so large a quantity. He said he didn’t know, but would send for his master mechanic. He arrived, and was questioned why the meter should be run- ning. He said he was filling the tank in the tower. I asked him how large the tank was, and he informed me that it was 10x12, 6 feet deep. How long does it take to filla tank 10x12, 6 feet deep with an inch supply, 115 Ibs. pressure, and where does the water go when the tank is full? Out of the overflow into the river,
To make a long story short the facts of the case are this, on the Friday be- fore the loss of water was reported from the pumping station, the pump that supplies the tank broke down and the city water was turned on, it run con- stantly until Tuesday night when it was shut off to do some repairs and Wednesday morning turned on again within half an hour of the time I let water into the section that I was testing which accounts why I did not lose water that night, and run until I discovered it Saturday night. The amount that passed through the meter for the week was 2,003,603 gallons, and at the
24 JOURNAL OF THE
schedule rates amounted to $200.36 and was paid for by the company, but not without some grumbling.
The reason that I did not discover that the meter was running when I first tested the supply was because I shut that off in order to test the fire supply and as all the piping for the tank is in plain sight I could not see how there could be a leak in that and not be discovered, or that anyone could be so careless as to leave it running.
AN EXPERIMENT AND A FAILURE BY Grorce A. Stacy, Supt., Marlboro, Mass.
About four years ago I had a number of hydrants to move back occasioned by the widening of a street. As this, of course, required that the water be drawn off from the main while the work was going on, I wished to finish the job as soon as possible. I thought if I had some device for forcing the hy- drants off the end of the pipes, that could be easily applied and quickly worked, and having the extension pieces ready and lead hot, I could make a quick job of it.
I looked over the files of the Association JourNaL to obtain what informa- tion I could from the experience of others, but found very little on this par- ticular subject. One man from Connecticut, [ believe, said he removed hy- drants by taking hold of the top and with two men working them back and forth, pulled them right off. I have tried that but did not have very good success. I then made up my mind to make the attempt to force them off, and made a machine as follows :
Two pairs of clamps made of 3xf wrought iron drawn together by { bolts and lined with leather ; these clamped on to the pipe made one abutment, and the face of the bell of the hydrant the other. I then made a screw jack with two 14 steel screws, eight threads to the inch, working in cast-iron blocks ; these blocks bolted to two wrought-iron yokes 3x, the whole mak- ing a ring whose internal diameter was ? larger than the outside diameter of the6in. pipe. Brackets on the front side of the cast-iron blocks held the ring centered and when the jack was pressed against the face of the hydrant the lead joint was clear all around. A cast-iron button was made to be placed between the heads of the 14 inch screws and the clampson the pipe.
After making this machine I tried it in the shop by putting togethera bell and spigot piece of pipe and made the joint in the usual manner ; then we put on the jack and I told my man to jack it out, and awaited the result. After getting a good strain on the jack the pipe started and responded to every turn of the wrench. Visions of success flashed across my mind and I was about to cry ‘‘ Eureka ” when there was a hitch inthe proceedings. My
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION. 25
man could not start the screw. We had the pipe drawn a little over an inch ; both of us got hold of the wrench and we got about one-half inch more, then the clamps slipped ; we screwed them up and tried again, but of no use, we could not start the pipe. .
I carried the experiment no further for I was satisfied that the machine was a failure for the purpose for which it was designed, for the reason that while the machine would easily force a hydrant off a straight plain piece of pipe, yet if a hydrant was set with a pipe which had a bead on the end (and we have set all our hydrants that way when possible) when the bead struck the lead in the joints the machine came to a stand-still, but perhaps with a longer lever on the wrench and more clamps en the pipe I could force the hydrant off ; yet the labor and expense would be more and it would take more time than to cut it off with hammer and chisel. So we finished the job in the old way.
It is more pleasant to record a success than a failure, yet no one need be ashamed of a good honest attempt, even it ends in failure, for I think that often-times the knowledge and experience gained from some of our failures are more valuable and lasting than that gained from some of our successes.
Tue Presmpent. Gentlemen, this failure of Mr. Stacy’s is before you for consideration. Perhaps some of you can suggest some device which would answer.
Mes Fouter. I would like to ask Mr. Stacy why he couldn’t have forced it off, the opposite end from the end which went into the hydrant.
Mr. Stacy. Mr. President, the idea in this case was to avoid excavation
in moving the hydrants back. Ifthe main is on the other side of the street you don’t want to go out to the main, dig up the street and shove the whole thing over. It would take more time than it would to cut it off with ham- mer and chisel.
Tue Preswent. It seems to me it would be very difficult to force the pipe off the hydrant where the bead end goes into the hydrant, as they have some half an inch of bead all around to pull out, with the pressure of the lead behind it. It would be cheaper to cut the pipe in two and putin a splice.
Mr. Stacy. That is the way it was done. I will say I didn’t want to go on to the street with this thing, as we have a pretty large sidewalk commit- tee there which would want to know what this was for, sol tried it in secret session, and I satisfied myself that a jack wouldn’t take off most of the hydrants. If I had only known where there was a hydrant without a bead on it I would have used the jack, but I wasn’t sure of that, so we used the hammer and chisel which I knew would work. And it takes a pretty good machine that will beat a hammer and chisel on a 6-inch pipe.
26 JOURNAL OF THE
Mr. Dyer. I may relate a little experience we have had in Portland. We took up a line of 6-inch cast iron pipe some half mile in length to replace it by 16-inch, and we took it up in double lengths, sometimes three, at a time.
“And having it all on the ground we naturally looked for the most feasible way to separate the joints, and we went to work something as the gentle- man has stated he did, and had clamps made very strong, and clamped them around the pipe just in front of the bell. Then we procured some jacks with about an inch and three-quarters screw, and we afranged two of those at a time, one each side of the pipe, and were able, as he has stated he was, to move the pipe some three-quarters of an inch, or, perhaps, an inch, but no further. We screwed our jacks up until we spoiled two of them, but in no case were we able to separate one joint, and we had to resort to melting them out by means of fire, as they were'on the bank. And that is the only way we have ever been able to separate pipes under similar circumstances.
Tue Presipent. That seems to be the general experience of most every one who has undertaken to pull pipe apart, We have always cut pipe in preference to building a fire under it. I cénsider it cheaper, and there is very little waste, not over five or six inches of the pipe, and I have always considered that preferable, to cut the pipe up close to the bell, and then break out what pipe there is in the bell, rather than to undertake to build a fire.
Mr. Hype. We use what is called the Providence bell, a shallow bell, and I have pulled apart 800 feet of 12-inch pipe in a little more than half a day and put it out on the bank. It was a case where the grade was changed at a bridge going over a railroad. We cut one end and put a derrick under the end which was cut, raised it up what we could with the derrick and threw dirt under the second bell, and had a couple of men get on the end of the pipe and jump it a little, then raised up a little on the derrick, and we pulled them all out without any trouble. Of course we couldn’t have done that with a 4-inch bell, but with our bells we did it very comfortably.
Tue Present. What is the depth of your bells?
Mr. Hype. Two and a quarter inches.
Tue Presmpent. I can readily see how that can be done with a shallow bell, with a bell three and a half or four inches deep it would be much more difficult.
Mr. Hype. It is plenty deep enough.
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION.
FIRE PROTECTION.
TWO METHODS OF OBTAINING FIRE PROTECTION BY DIRECT HIGH PRESSURE FROM WATER WORKS PUMPS IN COMBINED PUMP- ING AND RESERVOIR OR STANDPIPE SYSTEMS.
BY
Gro. A, Exxis, Civil Engineer, Boston, Mass.
In most of the lesser cities and in nearly all of the smaller ones and large towns having a public water supply, it is customary to depend im some measure upon direct connection of the fire hydrants with leading lines of hose, for fire streams, both for use against incipient fires and in case of wide- spread conflagrations.
This use varies from the slight requirements in the first instance, to that where the water works hydrants are relied upon for the principal protection against fire, the fire engines forming a reserve force in case of accident, needed increase of the number of streams or of extremely long lines of hose.
So thoroughly does a good water works plant assist the efforts of the fire- men, that streams from such plants are desired by them as the most effec- tive attainable; while both parties recognize the exigencies requiring the retention and use of steam fire engines.
It therefore, becomes a question, how far the principal of direct pressure from the pumps, can be advantageously applied to fire protection. This question is not entirely one of population or of pumping capacity, nor can the burning of a few tons of coal be taken as its measure, but it must be settled by the relation of pumping capacity to consumption.
If the pipe system is well designed, able to convey the volume of water ’ required without undue loss from friction and the pipe itself able to with- stand the strains and shocks arising from direct pressure, then direct pressure is desirable for fire protection, so long as the ordinary consumption, plus the waste due to the increased pressure, still leaves a safe margin, within the capacity of the pumps, for all fire streams likely to be needed, (supposing no scarcity of water to exist.)
This condition will, therefore, vary not only with different cities and plants, but also with each city and plant at varying seasons of the year and at different hours of the day.
Many cities and towns are supplied entirely by direct pressure, so that the advantages to be derived therefrom for fire protection are already theirs. It has, however, been found that in all cases where practicable, it is desirable to supplement the pumps by storage reservoirs at sufficient elevation to
28 JOURNAL OF THE
supply the ordinary consumption and in some instances at elevations suffi- cient for fire streams.
While in the smaller cities, where suitable elevations for the construction of reservoirs do not exist, in order to avoid the expense of continuous pump- ing, especially during the night, recourse is had to standpipes of iron or steel to act as small reservoirs, but which owing to the topography of the surrounding country, are seldom sufficiently high to afford efficient fire streams. In order to take advantage of the pumps for direct pressure, gates are usually introduced.in the main connecting with the reservoir or stand- pipe, by which they can be shut off and the whole power of the pumps ap- plied through the distribution system. In some cases the reservoirs or standpipes are connected with the distribution system only by the force main via the pumping station, where by proper gates and connections, the force main can be cut out without interfering with the distribution, which thus becomes subject to direct pressure. Other means have been adopted by different engineers, to obtain this much desired result, with varying de- grees of success. A description of two of these methods tried by the author, may therefore, be of interest to others studying the same problem.
The first method was suggested by the striking apparatus connected with the bell of an ordinary fire alarm, viz., motion by means of a weight sus- pended to a wire rope wound around a drum connected by revolving gears toa ratchet wheel, from which the pawl was released by magnetic action produced by a current of electricity.
The details of this scheme were worked out by the ‘Coffin Valve Manu- facturing Company” of Boston, Mass., and the apparatus was attached to one of their 10-inch gates in the vertical 10-inch supply pipe to the Racine, Wisconsin, standpipe, in the spring of 1887.
The apparatus was set so that the axle of its drum was in line with the spindle of the gate, to which it was attached by a socket extension.
When the pawl was tripped, the fall of the weight was retarded by a fan, attached to the axle of the ratchet wheel, whose angle of striking the atmos- phere, could be changed so as to regulate at will, the length of time re- quired for the weight to drop and in which to close the valve ; the time re- quired in this instance so as not to jam the valve being found to be about thirty seconds.
The pumps being run slowly at the time of tripping the valve, which is done from the pumping station, the engineer is not taken unawares, and no water hammer occurs, but watching his gauge, he carefully increases the engine speed, till the proper pressure for fire streamsis attained, after which only the same watehfulness is required as in ordinary direct pressure.
The standpipe in this case is situated on a pedestal 55 feet high, and fur- nished with separate inlet and outlet pipes; the former 10-inch diameter, fitted with the gate already described ; the outlet pipe 16-inch diameter with gate and check valve ; while the inlet pipe rises from the outlet pipe just on the pump side of the check valve.
» NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION. 29
The pipe, gates, weights and apparatus, are contained within annular chambers 4 feet wide and 15 feet high, within the pedestal.
Electrical connection (open circuit) is made between the standpipe and pumping station, one and one-fourth miles apart, with the usual size, gal- vanized iron wire, with the exception of across the Root River, where there is a submerged cable connection. At the pumping station there is a battery of the usual power required to work a fire alarm circuit of equal length, and the pawl at the standpipe is tripped by merely closing the circuit by means of a switch, in the engine room of the pumping station. The mechanical operation of the apparatus was perfected by Mr. S. W. Harris, the engineer first in charge at the pumping station, since which time no difficulty has been experienced in shutting the gate at will, from the engine room.
The following year a duplicate of this apparatus was connected with the standpipe at Janesville, Wisconsin.
The practical difficulties attending this method have been found to be first, the necessity of sending a man to the standpipe to open the gate when- ever closed ; second, the tripping mechanism is so delicate as to be operated sometimes by electric storms.
Neither of these objections are serious when compared with the benefits derived from the ability to close the gate at will; but yet were sufficient to lead the study, resulting in the second method, whereby the gate is con- trolled, or can be both opened and closed at will, from the pumping station.
The first device for this method was put in two years ago at Marion, Ohio, where the distance between the standpipe and pumping station is three and three-fourths miles by the pipe line. In this case, the inlet is also the outlet pipe, and is 16-inch diameter.
The device consists of a 16-inch gate, operated by hydraulic pressure, in- serted in the main pipe line between an ordinary gate at base of standpipe and another gate in the street. This hydraulic gate, and water cylinder rests on its side and is an ordinary ‘‘Chapman,” bell end, hood gate, with composition covered steel piston rod and stuffing box, instead of screw spindle, with 10-inch composition lined cast iron cylinder, connected to hood of gate, by a suitable yoke, the piston used is of the same type, as that for ordinary hydraulic work, and is fitted with hydraulic packing, (double leather cups). All hydraulic work, outside the body of the gate built by the ‘*Deane Steam Pump Company” of Holyoke, Mass. Each end of the hy- draulic cylinder was tapped for one-quarter inch pipe, and when ready for work was connected with corresponding ports of the operating valve, which latter occupies the same relation to the working of the hydraulic cylinder as the steam chest does to the steam engine; the intake port of this valve was connected with the 16-inch main by two lines of three-quarter inch pipe, one on each side of the 16-inch gate, each line being fitted with gate and check valve and the lines being united before reaching the operating valve ; the object of this double connection being to utilize the pressure in the main pipe line on that side of the gate where it should be the greater. It
30 JOURNAL OF THE
will be seen that by throwing the pressure through the operating valve, into the end of the cylinder next to the gate, the gate will open, while if the pressure is applied to the other end the gate will close; the exhaust being back through exhaust ports in the operating valve.
This operating valve was designed by A. H. Howland, Civil Engineer, and consists of a cast iron shell, composition lined, of about two inches interior diameter, and having transversely of the cylinder, five ports one-quarter inch wide, one for the inlet, two for the operating, one connecting with each end of the hydraulic cylinder and two exhaust ports. On a one-half inch valve stem are three brass pistons, three-eighths inch thick, so arranged that a movement of the valve stem of five-eighths inch, will divert the pres- sure to the operating port at one end of the cylinder and cut off the exhaust at that end, while the same motion will shut off the pressure, and put the operating port and exhaust in connection at the other end.
The pipe used was three-quarter inch reduced at the operating valve and at the hydraulic cylinder to one-quarter inch. Under these conditions and with a standpipe pressure of about 45 pounds the 16-inch gate opens or closes in 45 to 50 seconds.
In order to light the pumping station, and also to furnish means of con- trolling the operating valve, there was erected at the pugping station a small, high speed, vertical steam engine, of five horse power and an arc dynamo capable of the same effort. At the operating valve was set a lifting magnet, capable of lifting 200 pounds. This magnet consisted of two pair of spools, set in a cast iron frame, above which was attached a rocking arm, carrying at each end a heavy bar of soft iron; the motion of this rocker arm necessary to bring either bar of iron in contact with its own particular pair of spools, was about one-quarter inch ; on top of this arm was attached another, of.sufficient length to give the proper length of stroke to the oper- ating valve, with which it was connected by a rod and bell crank. An in- sulated copper wire, (No. 8 B. W. G.) was run from each pair of spools at the lifting magnet, (two wires required), to the switch board at the pumping station, where a three way switch set on the center, cuts the electric current out from both wires; set on either side, diverts the current to and through the pair of magnet spools wired to and connected with that point, instantly attracting the bar of soft iron attached to the rocker arm and thus moving the operating valve as desired, and through that the main gate.
Shortly after the erection of this apparatus, a duplicate was erected at Decatur, Alabama, and during the two years that have since ensued, the magnets at either place, have never failed to respond to the application of the electric current at the switchboard at the pumping station ; in fact the engineer at Marion, states that by actual trial he has found it impossible to make and break the contact so quickly as to fail to work the magnet and valve. During these two years the valves have been operated at least.twice each week, to make sure that connections were perfect, valves in working
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION. 31
order, etc., but the magnets have never worked except when the current was turned on to them at the switchboard.
The only difficulty developed in operating has been that the hydraulic cylinder was not large enough to overcome the drag of the gate upon its seat in starting to open it, if the pumps were stopped and full standpipe pressure thrown on one side of the gate ; as, however, this was easily reme- died by slowing down the pumps till the pressure became the same as that of the standpipe, and operating the gate while it was thus balanced, no practical difficulty has been experienced ; while to guard against isolation of the standpipe in case of a burst on the long force main, the hydraulic gate is ‘‘ by-passed.”
In building new it might be desirable to construct the hydraulic cylinder of the same diameter as the gate itself.
It was complained at one time that the gate opened quicker than it closed, but an examination developed the fact that this was apparent rather than real, the closing not showing on the gauge till the gate was nearly shut, while its effect was noticeable in opening to the same extent, but in the first case at the end and in the latter case at the commencement of piston travel.
It should have been mentioned that the electrical apparatus was designed and furnished by the “'Thompson-Houston Company.”
The success of this second method of securing direct pressure has been such that it can be confidently recommended wherever it can be applied. If in a city where there is always maintained a 24-hour electric service, the expense of steam engine and dynamo could be avoided.
If all machinery is standing still at time of the alarm, the engine and dynamo can be running full speed before the main pumps will be ready to “speed up,” and whether running or not can all be ready to respond to the call of the Chief of the Fire Department by the time he can get upon the ground and de- termine that he wants direct pressure.
There are no patents on the combinations by which this result has been secured,
JOURNAL OF THE
THE VENTURI METER. BY R. As Rosertson, Jr., Civil Engineer.
The problem of the commercial measurement of large quanties of flowing water has for a long time resisted all efforts made by hydraulic engineers to- ward its solution. Positive mechanical meters, reciprocal or rofary, hardly applicable to streams of diameters over four inches, fail utterly when diameters nearing one foot, or quantities nearing one million gallons daily are reached.
Many methods have been devised to this end, but in every case the cost of construction and setting of the cumbrous apparatus employed, the expense of maintaining them and the care required in their use, the loss of head, and the general inaccuracy of the results obtained, have been such as to prohibit their use. Even the weir, recognized as the standard means of measuring water in large quantities for tests, can only be used under conditions in close imitation of those under which the apparatus has been standardized ; this too, at the expense of a considerable amount of head, and with a heavy cost in setting and maintaining.
That an instrument, to be available for this purpose, must be both cheaply constructed and maintained at small cost, is necessitated by the low value of the water gauged ; it must also operate without serious loss of head. Its action must be continuous, and its indications automatic.
For such a means of measuring water in large quanties, there has grown a demand not io be stifled by repeated failures ; and, wher at the meeting of the American Society of Civil Engineers, December 1887, in presenting his paper “The Venturi Water Meter; an instrument making use of a new method of gauging water, applicable to the cases of very large tubes and of low value only, of the liquid to be gauged” he made public a solution of this problem, and described careful, severe and satisfactory tests carried on here in Holyoke,—it is not strange that Mr. Clemens Herschel’s confrerers should appreciate this eminent engineer’s success, and award him the How- land prize for his invention.
Mr. Herschel has very aptly given to his invention the name of “ Venturi Meter ;” for it was the Italian philosopher Venturi, who, about an hundred years ago, first called attention to the peculiar movement of fluids flowing through converging and diverging tubes, and made known the results of a series of experiments relating to this subject.
Since Venturi’s time, a host of scientific men have studied the laws covering the flow of fluids in converging tubes, and varied are the applications made of their discoveries ; but it is to Mr. Herschel’s honor that of all these scienti- fic men, he alone saw the practical application of these laws.
The meter itself is of extremely simple construction. It consists of a con- traction to be introduced into a pipe-line, to produce an abrupt depressicn in
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NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION. 33
the hydraulic gradient, from the measurement of which the quantity of water flowing can be accurately determined. e
In Mr. Herschel’s experiments, gauges or piseometers were connected with the meter, one at the throat or smaller section, and one at some convenient point at the up-stream side of the contraction. The difference in pressure in- dicated by these gauges was the head on the meter. Substituting this head in the simple formula V=,/2gu. where V represents the velocity through venturi, and g the velocity attained by a falling body in one second, a co-efficient ap- proximating to 1 was obtained. The co-efficient showed a remarkable con- stancy, whether applied to a rough meter and nine foot pipe, or a smooth meter and one-foot pipe, with velocities through the pipe ranging from one foot to six feet per second.
Measurements with weirs are only to be made by practical repetitions of the Lowell experiments of Mr. Frances. Taking only weirs without end contrac- tions and with depths on the weir ranging from three-tenths of a foot to two feet, the co-efficient or flow varies seven per cent.
In the case of the two meters previously mentioned, so different in size and structure, with areas in the ratio of eighty-one to one, and frictional surfaces widely differing, the combined range of co-efficient did not equal this figure for velocities measuring from five to fifty feet per second through the venturi. During the entire test of the larger meter, in which none of the defects exist- ing in the other had been corrected, did the co-efficient found from a single experiment depart from the mean by more than one-half of oneper cent. The precise conditions of every day practice were attained in the tests of the four foot meter at the Macopin intake of the East Jersey Water Company. Here the water was run through the meter, set permanently in the pipe-line, in quantities varying from the rate of two and one-half to fifty millions of gallons per day, thus providing quite a severe test.
Despite the radical changes of form and proportion, the performance of this meter not only confirmed the deduction arrived at from the other tests, but by the increased uniformity and closer approximation of the co-efficient to 1 justified the changes made for the better guidance of the water, and of obtain- ing precise pressures.
Mr. Herschel also made series of experiments on a one-inch meter, the results of which, notwithstanding the imperfect gauges used, cor- respond nearly with the Holyoke experiments. Mr. Herschel’s experiments receive a most interesting confirmation in those of Mr. James Brownlee, who gave the results of his experiments in a paper read some years ago before the Institution of Engineers and Ship Buildersin Scotland. These results, though obtained from a tube whose throat was only .1982 inch diameter coincide almost exactly with those obtained by Mr. Herschel for the one foot meter. . This confirmation of the theory is particularly valuable, in that it was obtained by men who never heard of one another, and who followed out differ- €nt lines of investigation, on tubes varying widely in size and in details of construction.
34 JOURNAL OF THE
Dependent as its operation is solely upon the principle of the relation be- . tween velocities and pressurts, the scope of this form of meter would appear to be very great. Certain it is that the metering of any quantity of liquid up to one bundred and fifty millions of gallons per diem is now easily within the compass of a single instrument, with but the probable error of one-half of one per cent. An instrument too, that is of such simple construction as to cost but little more than its own length of the pipe which it will displace, weighing less, and at no part exeeding the latter in diameter. Without moving parts its durability is insured, and its repairs will form no item of expense ; sticks, dirt, fish, or any other foreign matter which would seriously derange the action of an ordinary meter, will pass the venturi without disturbance. As has been said, one might raft logs through a thirty-six-inch meter, without injury.
The one foot, four feet and nine feet meters, above referred to, were of wood, built up inside a metal tube, and lined at the throat with brass.
Diagram A. illustrates the performance of these three meters. The results of the experiments of Mr. Brownlee are also plotted on the same diagram.
The illustration Fig. 1 represents a thirty-six-inch meter, designed for the East Jersey Water Company, to measure the supply of the ‘City of Newark, N.J. It is made entirely of cast iron and swept smoothly to the required shape. The throat is lined with brass, and the pressure at the head or up-stream end is taken from an air-chamber around the body of the tube above the beginning of the cone, and connected with the interior by clearly drilled holes. The throat is surrounded by a similar chamber, and vent holes in it are drilled in the same plane, perpendicular to the axis, and with clean sharp edges. ;
The rounding of the up-stream intersection of the cone with the cylinder, of this meter as compared with the Holyoke meters, and the greater smoothness of the cylinder and the superiority of the metal surface over the wood, will contribute materially toward reducing the friction and consequent loss of head, and will also produce a greater uniformity of flow, and increase the pre- cision of the indications.
The length of the meter is about ten and one-half times the diameter of the trunk. One to nine has been taken as the ratio of the area of throat to that of the pipe, and where the loss of two or three feet of head is of no consequence, it will be best to use that ratio; as with high velocities through throat of meter, greater accuracy and uniformity is obtained, but the instrument can be varied in any or all of its proportions to suit specific requirements, and when it is not important that the meter should measure a wide range of quantities it can be so proportioned that the maximum loss of head shall not exceed one foot.
With the maximum velocity which is allowed in pipe-lines by good practice, say six feet per second, there will be a velocity of fifty-four feet per second through the throat of a meter whose ratio is one to nine. The loss of head when passing this quantity will not exceed ten feet. The loss of head falls rapidly asthe flow is reduced. With a flow of five feet persecond through the
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pipe, and a corresponding velocity. of forty-five feet, through the throat of meter, the loss of head will not exceed four and one-half feet.
In ordinary water works service the velocity in pipe lines seldom exceeds four feet per second, corresponding to a loss of head due to the meter of less than three feet. For almost any case other than for water supplied to mills for power, this friction-head can be easily afforded.
Diagram Fig. 2 shows the loss of head due to friction in Venturi meter for velocities through throat ranging from 0’ to 50’ per second.
It cannot be claimed for the meter that it will successfully operate for very low velocities. The fundamental principle of its action precludes this ; but those velocities of which the measurement is below the scope of this instru- ment, are equally outside the pale of practice. By the use of very sensitive gauges, measurements of extreme accuracy can be made, and this meter be employed to advantage in tests in place of weirs ; and, as it requires less care in setting and operating, its range of variation is much less. But the commer- cial success of the meter for use in mains is dependent upon the employment of some instrument which will indicate the amount of water passing at any time, and record the total quantity that has passed.
To devise a satisfactory indicating and recording instrument to do this, has been a very serious practical problem. Mr. Herschel devised several, which, while most ingenious, yet presented some mechanical defects. Several in- struments, more or less ingenious, have been successively developed by other engineers, and at length all mechanical defects seemed to be eliminated ; but still, all the recording instruments of this class were radically defective, in that none possessed the power to indicate at a glance the quantity of water that had passed.
Mr. H. D. Pearsall, of London, England, suggested the use of an ordinary house meter, to be set on a bye-pass pipe leading from the up-stream con- nection to throat of meter. The flow through it would be proportional to the flow through the venturi, and, if properly rated, its dial should indicate the volume passing through the meter.
Mr. Pearsall has patented the use of this arrangement. While it is a dis- tinct improvement over all other instruments previously mentioned, it seemed, after careful investigation, liable to failure.
The long sought for instrument has at last been found in an invention of Mr. F, N. Connet. This instrument, for which a patent has been applied, is diagrametrically shown by the accompanying illustration Fig. 3.
In a loop of pipe connecting the throat and up-stream end of meter is in- serted a gauge-column of non-conducting material, and a closed reservoir con- taining mercury. The gauge-column is of sufficient length to permit the mer- cury, as it is displaced from the reservoir and rises in it, to balance any differ- ence of pressure that may at any time exist between the throat and up-stream end of the meter.
Through the shell of the gauge-tube wires are inserted, each of which is
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connected with one or more buttons spaced about the periphery of a switch- dial. An arm is made to revolve over the face of the switch-dial, and is con- nected to the mercury in the gauge-tube by wire, through a counter and battery.
The velocity of flow in the throat of meter is determined, as stated before, from the excess of pressure at the up-stream end over that at the throat. In this instrument, this head on the venturi is indicated by the difference be- tween the level of the mercury in the reservoir and that in the tube. The con- ductors inserted through shell of tube are spaced in such a manner that the number in contact with the mercury is always proportionate to the velocity of flow through meter. The switch-arm revolves at a constant rate, and in one revolution touches every button on switch-dial. There will be as many cir- cuits made and broken, and indicated by the counter, as there are contacts with the mercury in the column. The readings of the counter, then, are directly proportional to, and indications of, the rate of flow through the meter.
With the sectional area of the throat and times of revolution of the switch- arm known, the train of gearing in the counter is made such that a positive volumetric record is made of the flow. The counter adds up the flow for suc- cessive cycles for an indefinite period ; its dial reads in feet or gallons. The switch-arm may be driven either by powerful clock-mechanism or by an elec- tric regulator clock. These, with counter and batteries, may be placed at almost any distance from the meter. The mercury column, for convenience, may be placed at a very considerable distance from the meter.
Fig 4 shows the switch-dial-case, mercury-reservoir and column, as prepared for slipping into shield-case. Fig. 5 shows the appearance of the apparatus as ordinarily set up, except that, as before stated, the recording- dial may be placed at any distance from the other parts of the instrument.
This particular recording-apparatus was made to accompany a sixteen-inch meter, furnished to the town of Montclair, N. J., in which the maxium velo- city of flow through throat does not exceed twenty-five feet per second,— roughly corresponding to two and one-half million gallons in twenty-four hours. A variation of two one-hundredths of a foot in head on the venturi was readily indicated, though such accuracy is not necessary in a recorder of this class, because the intervals between conductors inserted in the gauge- column, which are made to correspond to increments of one-fourth of a foot in velocity through throat, above four feet, are greater than this. The mimi- mum flow through meter is about five feet, though the recording-instrument is arranged to indicate flows as low as three-fourths of a foot per second.
It is, however, likely that the readings of velocities below two and one-half feet per second would be somewhat in error. As the meter in question is never expected to measure such small quantities, the action of the recording- instrument is interesting only as showing what it might do.
JOURNAL OF THE:
Number of Vel. in Ven. Contact Poiat. ft. per sec. 1 3 2 1-3 3 2-4 4 3 5 3-4 6 4 7 4-} 8 4-} 9 4-3 26 9 44 13-3 62 18 63 18-} 80 22-4 81 22-4 89 24-3 90 25
are not at first apparent.
Cu. ft. per
sec. -116 232 -348 ~464 542 ~620 -659 -698 - 737 1.396 2.094 2.792 2.831 3.49 3.53 3.84 3.88
Rise of H. g. in tube.
-007 028 064 -114 115 202 228 - 256 285 1,024 2.304 4.096 4,211 6.400 6.543 7.744 7.882
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION 41 The following table indicates the difference in level of mercury in reservoir and tube, when in contact with different conductors, together with the velo-
city of flow through throat of meter corresponding to such contacts :
Head on Venturi
ft. of Water. ~0091 .036 .082 .146 -198 -259 -292 -328 .365 1.31 2.95 5.24 5.39 8.19 8.37 9.91 10.108
This kind of recording apparatus possesses many interesting features that It automatically integrates any vuriation due to violent fluctuation of flow, and records only the mean flow. Should any re- finement of accuracy be required, or further experiments make it seem de- sirable, the position of contacts in gauge-column can be changed so as to correspond to minute variations found in co-efficients for any particular meter, from zero to maximum flow. The experience gained from the experimental and commercial meters that have been made is such as to warrant the dec- laration that the Venturi meter will measure large volumes of fluids or gases far more accurately than they can be measured by any-other means, and that its adoption is no longer attended with any trouble, uncertainty or risk.
ta = ~~ fic, ro) ra a : =
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION.
DISCUSSION.
Mr. Ricnarps. It seems to me that this meter is going to be very valuable for works supplied by gravity. Where the water is supplied by pumping, the consumption can be found with reasenable accuracy from the pump records, but when the works are supplied by gravity it is a hard matter to arrive at detinite details regarding the consumption, and that is something it is always very desirable to know. It seemed to me, however, from the reading of the paper—I should not want to make the statement until I had digested the paper somewhat—that under very high velocities the loss of head would be very considerable in the meter. In the case of the ordinary flow in the supply mains it would probably record it very correctly and with a loss of head easily spared, and it is possible that there might be some at- tachment, a by-pass or something of that kind, to relieve the meter when there was an exceptionally heavy draft, It seems to me that would be nec- _ essary. But the meter appears to be a very valuable instrument.
Mr. Rozertson. I will say in reply to Mr. Richards’ remarks that those who are engaged on the commercial side of the Venturi meter are very much interested in the problem Mr. Richards suggests, the correct measurement of the quantity of water pumped. The hope is that the Venturi meter will be serviceable in that direction, and we are already in correspondence with a water works corporation for the manifacture of a very large meter for this purpose, to check up and detect leakages in the pump. Mr. Richards raises the point of the loss of headin the meter with high veloci- ties in the main pipe. The velocity through the throat of the meter as ordinarily constructed is about nine times the velocity of the flow of the water in the main pipe, and with a velocity of six feet in the main pipe the maximum loss of head due to the meter will not exceed, as I said in my paper, 10 feet; but it seldom occurs in water works practice that a velocity approximating to six feet in the main pipe is reached. If it is, and it is a long pipe, it is high time the corporation had a larger pipe.
Mr. Stearns. I would like to ask Mr. Robertson if he has computed what the length of pipe is that that loss of head would compare with.
Mr. Ropertson. I haven’t followed it out, but it is a very easy problem to work out.
Mr. Srzarns. I presume it would only represent the friction in a certain limited length of pipe in any case.
Mr. Rospertson. Thatisit. If you noticed, in my paper I said the de- tails of the meter might be varied in every way. In cases where extreme velocities are to be contended with the diameter of the throat of the meter may be increased, and in such a way as to very materially reduce the loss of head due to the meter. For instance, the throat may be made in the ratio of 1 to 3 instead of 1 to 9, or even 1 to 2, and still record accurately. The laws governing its action are just as positive with the small contraction, but with a large throat the accuracy of the measurement of small volumes
44 JOURNAL OF THE
may beinerror. But where we have to contend with high velocities in a main pipe we are seldom called upon to contend with very low velocities, and the reduction of the throat from 1 to 9 was made to cover as wide a range as possible to meet ordinary requirements.
Mr. Fuuter. I would like to ask Mr. Robertson whether this meter can be put in a pipe line and some recording apparatus connected with it so it can be told month by month what the consumption is. And I would also like to ask him regarding the expense of such an arrangement.
Mr. Rosertson. The meter is covered up. Itis intended to be put in the ground and to form 4 part of the pipe line. It is entirely out of sight and beyond attention.
The recording apparatus may be placed at any distance, miles, if need be, from the meter. The reservoir and gauge tube containing the mercury should be placed within some reasonable distance. say 500 feet, but there is no limit to the distance to which that the switch arm and recording instrument may be carried. For instance, the meter may be placed at the reservoir on the hill, and the recording apparatus in the Commissioners’ office miles away.
With regard to the expense, I am not posted on the prices for ordinary meters, but my impression is that the Venturi meter, even so small as six inches, can be furnished for about one-half what the ordinary meter of six inches is sold for. But we donot propose to come in contact with the meter people on such small sizes. We keep away from them entirely, so that they may have that field to themselves ; we want to keep on good termS with them.
Mr. Fuuter. Wouldn’t this be a good way to measure the water used for fire service in large mills?
Mr. Rosertson. There is no reason why it shouldn’t be used. We are in hopes it will be adopted for that very purpose, not only for fire supply for mills but for railroad service. There seems to be a very good field in that direction ; and also in measuring large volumes of gases or heavy fluids.
Mr. Ricuarps. The reduction on a 20-inch main would be to some- where about six or seven inches and that seems at first thought rather alarming.
Mr. Rossrtson. It does seem appalling at first sight to reduce a 20-inch main to six or seven inches, but if a gauge were put on the meter above the reduction and another one below the reduction, it follows by an abso- lute law that the pressure will be reduced only by the amount shown by the curve on the diagram. It cannot be otherwise.
Mr. Noyes. I would like to ask Mr. Robertson how low velocities the meter will gauge accurately.
Mr. Ropertson. Ordinarily not below five feet per second through throat of meter, which corresponds to one-ninth of five feet per second in the main pipe. If it is required to measure very small quantities the gauge I spoke
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION. 5
of in my paper can be so constructed as to follow the variations of the co- efficient discovered for any particular meter. In such a way I have no doubt that velocities as low as two feet per second in the Venturi could be measured accurately; and if that were not satisfactory a special meter could be made with a much smaller throat than the standard meter. A meter will be seldom called upon to measure both the greatest quantity that can be made to flow through a pipe and quantities as low as those suggested by Mr Noyes. Ordinarily the requirements are between reasonable means, and the meter can be constructed to meet those requirements.
Mr. Noyes. Then in a case such as Mr. Richards spoke of, of a gravity system, where the night consumption is very small and the day consumption quite considerable, it would not give a correct history of the consumption.
Mr. Rosertson It is possible that the night consumption will exceed the mimimum of the gauge. I think the night consumption would never fall below, for instance, a half a foot per second in the main pipe.
Mr. Futter. I wish you would inform me why we could not have a series of different sized meters on a by-pass.
Mr. Rozsertson. That might be arranged, of course, but one would probably do all that is required.
Mr. Ricuarps. You think it would not make a record below half a foot a second?
Mr. Rosertson. It would make a record, but the record might be out of the way to an extent of four or five per cent. It would still be within the range of an ordinary meter, however.
Mr. Noyes. Approximately how close will it record as you reduce your velocity ?
Mr. Rosertson. Probably within five per cent. with a flow through the Venturi of, one foot, corresponding to an inch anda half in the main pipe. The diagram illustrates that. The more accurately the meter is made the more accurate will be the measurements.
Joun THomson, M. Am. Soc.C E. Mr. Robertson’s paper ; which while in many respects most interesting and evidently carefully prepared, starts off with statements more or less misleading. Of these I first note the assertion, laid to the door of other meter makers that their instruments are “hardly ap- plicable tc streams of diameters over four inches (and) fail utterly when diame- ters nearing one foot or quantities nearing one million gallons daily are reached.” It appears sufficient to say respecting the foregoing that the yearly output of at least five companies in the United States will reach hundreds of positive displacement meters of the four and six inch capacities and that the practical experience with nearly all large sizes of meters is quite as satisfactory as with the smaller capacities, for the good reason that the range in rate of delivery is more con- stant and the velocities to be dealt with are lower. There is at least one company in the United States that for some time have been making positive meters up to ten inches capacity, while another company also makes meters
46 JOURNAL OF THE
up to the same capacity but of the inferential type. In Great Britain the «Kennedy ” has long been built in the eight and the ten inch sizes, a meter by the way which has never been excelled in point of accuracy of measure- ment. Then, of the current or velocity meters, a type common in Europe, may be mentioned Tylor’s, Siemen’s and the “‘ Universal” each of which is made in sizes up to twelve inches capacity. If these have “failed” utterly (because of their size) then I would like to have the evidence, even although sueh proof would militate against the high opinion which I have had reason to entertain for many of my competitors in this branch of engineering.
Again, referring to one of the paragraphs regarding Mr. Herschel, this averment is made, that ‘‘of all these scientific men, he alone saw the prac- tical application of these laws.” Mr. Herschel’s admirable accomplishment was to ascertain a co-efficient, by the employment of exceptionally favorable conditions coupled with accurate, painstaking observations, which resulted exactly as might have been predicated in view of the well known princi- ples upon which the demonstration was based. All honor to the ‘“‘ prophets” of our own country, but not to the detriment of the prophets who have gone before. Properly disposed there is honor enough for alland to spare.
As to the design of the Venturi tube, I am-inclined to the opinion that the already nearly constant co-efficient would be yet slightly improved if the throat were extended to form a short cylindrical tube, the fower piezometer being connected several diameters away from the converging inlet. The presumed advantage of this cylindrical section would be to ensure as solid a stream in the section of the higher velocity as in the section of the lower velocity, as it is probably impracticable to construct the internal surface of the “Venturi” with such theoretical accuracy as would be necessary to” entirely avoid variable contraction of the jet, due to velocity where it enters the throat.
In regard tothe recording mechanism, which by the way, is really all there is toa system of this kind, (once having ascertained the co-efficient,) Ishould say that Mr. Connet’s device is probably as accurate as any that has been suggested, and in meters of large capacity, under charge of com- petent assistants, ought to give a good account of itself. But for any general use, subject to the usual care and attention which is regarded ‘good enough” for meters, it can hardly be looked upon as commercially practicable. In the early days of multiplex telegraphs I had some expe- rience with ‘‘make and break contacts,” which resulted in a somewhat settled opinion that the doctrine of chances seemed to favor ‘‘that tired feeling” to which such contrivances are occasianally subject. Much of the success of this register will depend upon the arrangement and conditions under which the electrical apparatus operates; which is not fully set out in Mr. Robertson’s description. Thus, for instance, it would appear de- sirable that the mercury circuit should be operated by a weak current acting through arelay to the motor magnet, etc. But considering all the conditions, the ample loss of head available for motive purposes, say, as
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION 47
stated, from four to ten feet, and the slight variation in rate of flow, I see no reason why a modified arrangement analagous to that credited to Mr. Pearsall, or shown in my brief paper on a Proportional Water Meter, presented to the American Society of Civil Engineers, June, 1891, would not serve the purpose satisfactorily. In such an application the meter mechanism is in fact but a motor employed to drive the register which may either indicate the total volume or the aliquot part which passes there through. Such an experiment might now readily be made and the result compared with what has otherwise been accomplished. And I can say that the state of the art is such that but little difficulty would be found in making such an application without interfering with prior patented ar- rangements Nevertheless, irrespective of the means. by which a record may be obtained of differential pressures whereby to denote the volume of water flowing under pressure, it is my opinion that any system short of complete positive control of the entire quantity, will leave a feeling of uncertainty; because under such conditions we deal with the inference of the fact, not with the fact itself.
WATER SUPPLY AT FIRES. BY Joun C, Hasxetxt, Superintendent, Lynn, Mass.
Thinking that the experience of Lynn during the fire of November 26th, 1889, would be of interest to the Association, I take this opportunity to present it.
The population of Lynn as given by the census of 1890 was 55,727. Our average daily consumption of water for ‘the year 1889 was 2,450,413 for the week previous to the fire was 2,339,263 gallons.
The supply from which we drew was furnished from a reservoir contain- ing at the time the fire broke out 20,510,872 gallons,a Leavitt engine of 5,000,000 daily capacity which was in operation at that time and the Marble- head Water Company which is connected with our works. The reservoir is situated about two miles from the point where the fire started.
The ordinary water pressure through the burnt district is from 60 to 70 lbs. The water was supplied from the reservoir and Leavitt engine to the burnt district through one-16" and two-12” mains. The burnt district was intersected by streets supplied with pipes as follows: one 12”, five 10’, three 8”, four 6”, eight 4” provided with 35 hydrants.
While it is impossible to give any accurate statement of the number of streams playing at the same time on the fire,the whole number of engines at work was 19 and the amount of water used from 12m. November 26, the time the fire started, till 6 p. m., was 2,908,477 gallons ; from 6 p. m. on the 26th to 6 a. m. the 27th, 5,373,282 gallons; from 6a. m. till 12 m. on
48 JOURNAL OF THE
the 27th, 2,827,736 gallons; making a total consumption in 24 hours of 11,109,495 gallons.
The burning debris required a farther use of water amounting to 19,376,- 984 gallons, making a total consumption of 30,486,479 gallons used for all purposes from the commencement of the fire until the consumption of water reached its usual amount.
The amount used each 24 hours was: First 24 hours 11,109,495 gallons; second 24 hours 7,338,703 ; third 24 hours 5,313,290; fourth 24 hours 4,325,621 ; fifth 24 hours 2,399,370 gallons.
At the commencement of the fire it was so evident that a conflagration would ensue that every effort was made to stop any waste of water. Men were sent out with instructions to shut off the service pipes and fire sprink- lers as soon as a building provided with one was wellon fire. As far as possible all waste from this source was removed.
One 4-inch elevator pipe was broken outside the shut off and one 4-inch
. fire sprinkler was wasting water until 8 and 10 a. m., November 27th, at which time respectively they were shut off. The delay in shutting off these pipes was caused by the bricks from the fallen walls covering the gates.
From our experience at this fire it is evident that a city of our population, favorably situated to receive assistance from other cities, is liable to be called upon to furnish a supply of water greatly in excess of the full capa- city of its own Fire Department and equal to four times its ordinary daily consumption. This additional supply may be required forseveral days. In our case the amount of water stored in the reservoir, together with the con- stant work of the Leavitt Engine, enabled us to supply all water needed without being obliged to start the Deane pump which could have been added had it become necessary.
Although our works could have furnished much more water than we were required to, a Loietz Pumping Engine of 10,000,000 gallons daily capacity has been substituted in place of the Deane and we can now pump 15,000,000 gallons per 24 hours should the necessity arise.
An additional 20-inch main is now being laid from the reservoir to the center of the city. When this work is completed we will be able to supply for 24 hours six times our daily consumption.
The loss of water through a 4-inch fire-sprinkler from 3 p. m. of the 26th until 10 a. m. on the 27th shows the danger that menaces any water supply should the introduction of fire-sprinklers become general.
The weakest point in our supply of water for fire purposes is an insuffici- ent number of hydrants in the business portion of the city.
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION,
THE ARRANGEMENT OF HYDRANTS AND WATER-PIPES FOR THE
PROTECTION OF A CITY AGAINST FIRE. BY
Joun R. Freeman, Civil Engineer.
In March, 1879, I presented to this society an account of some experiments upon nozzles and fire-hose. We will at thistime consider the problems pre- sented next farther up the stream and discuss certain matters relating to the hydrants, the water mains and the magnitude of the water supply. The fol- lowing questions arise :
Ist. What is a proper allowance in gallons per minute for a good fire- stream ?
2nd. What is a suitable pressure?
3rd. How many streams ought our works to be able to supply simultane- ously ?
4th. What relation will this additional supply available for fire bear to the supply necessary for ordinary consumption ?
5th. In what position and at what distance apart can the hydrants be most advantageously placed?
6th. What sizes of pipes will be necessary to convey the above determined volume of water and deliver it at the required point with an efficient pressure?
7th. Having given a plan showing the lengths, diameters and elevations of the pipes of a given water-works distribution system, how can we compute the gallons per minute or the number of fire-streams which can be delivered at a given point?
Considering the foregoing questions in detail :
1sT. GALLONS PER STREAM:
The writer considers it best to base computations on 250 gallons per min- ute for a standard stream.
In the ordinary fire ina residence district, and perhaps for more than 19 . out of 20 of the fires to which even the department of a large city responds, the actual average delivery does not exceed from 175 to 200 gallons per min-
50 : JOURNAL OF THE
ute, but this is for fires brought quickly under control and fought mostly at short range and in which but a small part of the full power of the department is exerted.
The efficiency of a waterworks or a fire department, is measured by its ability to control a bad fire before it becomes a sweeping conflagration, and our design should be based upon streams suitable for this purpose.
I have heard the opinion advanced at some of the meetings of this society that 150 or 175 gallons was a fair allowance—and statements by men who stand high can be found giving 200 gallons per minute as proper.
No doubt these may have been fair average values of actual draft at the ordinary fire with the apparatus common ten years ago, but the point which I would emphasize is, that such values are wholly misleading and unfit for use in designing a system which is intended to cope with the extraordinary fire and to hold it from sweeping through the city.
Experience shows that large streams are much more effective on a fierce fire than small streams. A small stream may be so completely evaporated into steam as it passes through the flames as to never reach the seat of the fire.
A fire cannot be extinguished by wetting the flames.
In every fire which makes a flame, there are two processes taking place— the first process is the roasting out of gas; the second is the burning of this gas.
Water extinguishes mainly by chilling the ignited surface so no more gas is given off —the flames then die.
’ With a large stream, even though half the water be evaporated as it passes through the flames, there may be enough left to quench the glowing coals which form the heart of the fire.
Thus we see the reason for the opinion which many practical firemen have been led by experience —that given, say, 1,200 gallons of water per minute under good pressure—this will do more good on a fierce fire if con- centrated into four 1} in. streams of 300 gallons each, than if used in six 1 in. streams of 200 gallons each, or ten } in. streams of 120 gallons each.
The controlling element in the size of fire-streams is the limited diameter allowable for the hose.
A 1} in. 250 gallon stream calls for a velocity of 16.34 feet per second in the hose.
This velocity is far beyond what in other arts is regarded as the economi- cal limit for the velocity of flowing water.
In city water mains from 2 to 3 feet is the common velocity—in sewers the same is true—in the flumes supplying turbine water-wheels 3 to 5 feet can seldom be exceeded with propriety, and in the short delivery pipes to low lift centrifugal drainage pum)s, 10 feet per secondis the common maximum. :
In fire-hose we are held up to high, force-wasting velocities by the all important necessity of keeping the hose so smallin diameter and weight that men can grasp it firmly, handle it easily, and move it around quickly.
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION. 51
Practical experience has settled on 2} inches internal diameter as the fav- orite size.
The latest advices from Pittsburg where 3-inch hose was tried, would indi- cate it to be unwieldy. My own opinion now is that the hose of the future will be 2% inches in diameter, still for many years we must consider 24 inches as the standard size.
To deliver 250 gallons per minute with only 3 feet per second velocity
“would require a hose or pipe nearly six inches (5.83) in diameter.
In other words, you force as large a volume of water through a 24 in. hose as would go through a six inch pipe at the 3 foot velocity common in water mains.
We want as large a fire-stream as we can get and can handle.
A 1} in. stream is used in many departments and is often better than the 1} inch, if water is plenty and length of hose short. If hose is long, the friction due pushing so much water through so smalla pipe leaves the nozzle pressure so small that the stream is too feeble.
Thus from the hydraulic principles involved, we find that with hydrant pressures of 80 to 100 lbs., and lengths of hose from 200 to 400 feet, the 14 in. nozzle is the size best adapted for all-round use with 24 in. hose.
On the other hand, from the teachings of practice and without any discus- sion of scientific principles, the 1} in. smooth nozzle has come to be the size most common in the best American fire departments.
A smooth nozzle becomes an excellent water meter if the diameter of its bore and the pressure at its base be known, so if it be admitted that a 1} in. stream is the proper size and that a pressure of 45 lbs., at the base of the nozzle is needed to throw it in good shape to a proper height and distance, it follows without room for question, that 250 gallons per minute is a proper allowance for each stream.
Aljin. smooth nozzle under 41 lbs., indicated nozzle pressure will dis- charge 300 gallons per minute.
At almost any instant during a large fire, a part of the streams will be momentarily stopped, as for instance to enable position of hose to be changed ; moreover some streams will be working intermittently, holding fire from spreading, extinguishing the incipient flames as they catch on combustible cornices and roofs.
The writer has been an eye-witness of several very severe fires and has each time been struck with the sadly deficient power of a large proportion of the streams ; conversely, he has watched with admiration the quenching effect of a lj inch stream at two extremely hot fires; and as Hydraulic Engineer to an Association of Insurance Companies, has studied the character of streams in many trials of factory and city apparatus, and has come to be very strongly of the opinion that the following values are none too large for a safe basis for estimates,
For a severe conflagration in a residence or suburban district, 200 gallons per minute may serve well.
In the midst of the business part of a great city, as in the dry goods district of Boston or New York, 300 gallons per minute is the safest basis for designs.
ee anes se aes
52 JOURNAL OF THE
For a general average value, we believe 250 gallons per minute to be abou right,
In our own experience we have found it very common for the statements of the number of streams in use at one time to be too large and on following up the matter closely have found for instance, that although eight lines were run out, not more than six were in active use at any one time, we therefore feel that the smallness of the recorded average delivery is often due to an error in the number of streams, and from studying several severe fires, as an eye-witness, I have come to believe that it is much too often the case that the stream delivered by the nozzle is too small or too feeble to do good service.
Many and many a time more than half the static hydrant pressure is wasted in overcoming the friction through too long a line of hose or too small a street main.
A proper question to ask when considering any record as to the average gallons per stream actually used at a fire is—Were the streams found to be of the size adapted for extinguishing the fire ?
Without positive affirmation on this point the statistics may be mis- leading or worse than useless. as data for determining the proper allow- ance. 2ND. WHAT SHALL WE ADOPT AS A STANDARD NOZZLE PRESSURE WHEN DESIGNING
A FIRE SUPPLY?
The great majority of fires with which the well trained firemen of our large cities contend, are fought from the inside and at short range and for such work a nozzle pressure of 20 to 30 lbs. is well enough, but although 49 out of 50 fires can be thus extinguished, our design should not rest here but should be planned to bring under control one of those greater fires which once each few years, in some unexplainable way, gets a furious start and threatens to cut a swath through the town.
These greater fires must be foughtfrom the outside, and often with the
hose men standing on the ground.
1, At the great ‘‘Thanksgiving Day Fire” in Boston, the 86 streams thrown during tho hot- test of the fire averaged 233 gallons each, according to the estimate of the engineer of the Boston water works, (See Journal, N. E. Water Works Association, 1890, p. 182.
At the Collier Lead and Oil Works’ fire (loss $81,000) in St. Louis, as aperee by the water commissioner, (M. L. Holman, C E. in Journal Eng. Soc. 1882, p. 112.) The average delivery of each stream was estimated at 337 gallons per minute, but this is unusually large and sub- ject to question by reason of the computation being apparently based on an assumption that the steamers played 1% inch jets with a pump pressure of 200 pounds per square inch.
2. In Fanning’s Treatise, Water Supply Engineering, p. 506, the supply for a fire-stream is estimated at 150 gallons per minute. (Later in his address before the National Water Works Association, May 1892, Mr. Fanning bases his estimates upon a good standard for a small city, a 144 inch stream discharging 281 gallons per minute.)
J. Herbert Shedd, C. E., bases his estimates on 200 gallons per minute as a fair average allowance. (See Journal N. E. W. W. Association, 1889, p. 91.)
Mr. Wm. B. Sherman, C. E., of Providence, Journal N. W. W. Association, p. 91, 1889, is authority for the statement that at one of the most severe fires ever experienced in Provi- dence, (Sept. 27, 1877, loss $362, shown by pump ds was 189 gall per minute.
Mr. Wm. R. Billings of Taunton, in Journal N. E. W. W. Association, p. 105, cites two large fires in Taunton, where in one case, the streams averaged 130 gallons per minute, and in the other, 150 gallons per minute, as shown by the records at the pumping station.
000,' twenty-five streams were used and the average draft ,
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION. 53
In a compactly built district we must be able to wash sparks and incip- ient flames off from the highest roofs and cornices, and we must be able to deluge a building that is already ruined past value, as a means of safety to its neighbors, and to the middle of a wide one-story warehouse or among lumber piles, we must be able to throw a far reaching stream.
Although too often lost sight of in discussion, high pressure to span a broad distance is often as necessary as to carry a jet high. Occasionally it happens that a pipe-man would be almost roasted alive if he stood much nearer than 50 feet to the building in flames.
I have sought to learn the working pressure most suitable as a standard to base designs upon by experiments on jets from various sizes of nozzle and with nozzle pressures all the way up to 100 lbs. per sq. in. and have studied the matter as best I could at several fires.
From 40 to 50 lbs. pressure at the nozzle is that which I have finally come
to consider as about right.
More pressure than this can be obtained for occasional need, by siamesing two lines of hose into one ordinary 1} inch nozzle and thus saving three-fourths of the pressure commonly wasted in friction between the hydrant and the nozzle.
In the determination of the greatest allowable pressure, we are limited somewhat by the recoil which the man at the nozzle can hold.
An inexperienced man of average strength will have all he can do to hold and move around a lj in. nozzle under 25 or 30 lbs. pressure.
An experienced man can manage a 1jin. nozzle under 40 lbs. pressure very well.
Nearly always at a fire two men have hold of any nozzle from which a stiff stream is being played and can hold anything under 50 Ibs, quite easily.
In order to present a clearer idea of just what a451b. 1} in. jet will do, the sketch below is presented.
Suppose a bad fire in the fourth story of a five story commercial
building.
-—70 FT.-—~
=——=~ 6057. M-N.CO. BUFFALO Street
Fig. 1. Diagram representing the force of a 45 1b. x 13¢ inch jet. -
A good fireman would, of course, use every effortto gain an entrance to fight it at short range, quench it around the entrance and thence work back
54 JOURNAL OF THE
through the room, but suppose special circumstances made this impossible an. that it must be, for a time at least, worked from the ground.
Now if there were a water tower at hand, this might pour a deluge into the upper stories, but only cities of more than 200,000 inhabitants com- monly possess a water tower.
A 1} or 1} inch stream with a nozzle pressure of 40 to 45 lbs., would just about suffice to pour in streams through the upper windows as sketched, so they would strike the ceiling with such force as to be well scattered, and by concentrating from 2 to 4 such streams against any given sash for a moment, it could in all probability be burst in.
NUMBER OF STREAMS.
The third question with which we started was:
How many standard fire streams should the water works of a given city be able to supply all at one time?
This is a hard question to answer definitely and that it is unsatisfactory to formulate a rule based on population or area or valuation alone is evident when we consider how the fire hazard varies with :
1st. The compactness with which the city is built, the presence or absence of broad streets lined with shade trees which furnish in summer excellent fire screens.
2nd. The presence or absence of great concentrations of value.
3rd. The presence or absence of centres of special hazard such as wood working factories, lumber yards, oil works, etc., surrounded closely by compact rows of woodon structures.
4th. The prevalent structural material, whether wood or brick.
5th. Situation upon the shores of a body of water so that streams from steam fire engines can conveniently take the place of hydrant streams from the water works.
6th. Most potent of all in controlling the decision is the question of cost and of the inability to meet the additional expense which the furnishing of each additional stream entails.
7th. A burning business block fifty feet square by three stories high demands just as many fire streams to extinguish it and to protect the buildings each side of it when it happens to stand in a village of 2500 inhabitants as when it stands in a city of twenty times that population, but the larger city can provide the greater number of streams without feeling so severely the burden of the expense.
‘Lhe question, therefore, comes down to getting as near 10 streams for a fire district with close-lying valuable buildings and having 10,000 inhabitants or less, or as near 30 streams for a city of 100,000 inhabitants, as can be had without burdensome expense.
‘There may be large villages where broad streets and ample yard room make the conflagration hazard small,in which if the expense attending an installation is unusually large, it may be true economy to proportion its pipe lines and means of supply to yield only 2 or 3 standard streams and to
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION. 55
let the owners of isolated, special hazards, find their further safety in insurance.
On the other hand, if a community depends for support mainly upon some group of factories whose destruction might paralyze the life of the town, and if there was a cheap and convenient source of supply, it might be decidedly best for a village of 5000 inhabitants to provide for 10 (250 gallon) fire streams, although this is double the ordinary allowance for this population as shown by the table below.
But after all, though there may be exceptions, as above noted, communi- ties of the same population average pretty much alike in size of leading buildings and in general compactness of the centre of the town.
As a rough, general guide, the writer presents the table below :
Total population No. of 250 gallon streams which should be avail- if community able simultaneously in addition to protected: maximum domestic draft: 1,000 2to 3 5,000 4 ** 8 10,000 6“ 12 20,000 8“ 15 40,000 12 “ 18 60,000 15 “* 22 100,000 20 ** 30 200,000 30 ** 50
£4 +3
Ten streams or as largea proportion thereof as the fi ial ation will permit may be recommended for a compact group of large, valuable buildings irrespective of a small population.
So far as a general statement may apply, we should say that the pipes should be large enough and the hydrants numerous enough so that two-thirds of the above number of streams could be concentrated upon any one square in the compact, valuable part of the city or upon any one extremely large building of special hazard.
Mr. J. Herbert Shedd, was the first, so far as the writer is aware, to formulate the num- ber of fire streams needed in proportion to the population. (See Journal, N. E. W.W. Ass’n,. March, 1889, p. 113.
Mr. Shedd there presents*a formulae and a diagram, showing the number of streams needed, from which the following values are taken:
Population. . No. of 2u0 gallon streams.
The population above given to be estimated on the same basis as that which the works are intended to serve.
The above table is of special interest coming from an engineer af Mr. Shedd’s experience.
Mr. Shedd cites a few cases to confirm the above from good American practice, as follows :
(a.) In his own practice in designing water works. he states that for a population of 8,000 he has provided for throwing six streams at any point within the fire district.
(o.) At Bridgeport, an intelligent committee carefully looked into the question of fire sup- ply and decided that thirteen streams should be provided for a population of 40,000.
56 JOURNAL OF THE
(c.) At Fall River the greatest rate of fire draft shown by yeep records (Dec. 8th, 1874, Am. Print Works Fire,) was 2,600 gallons per minute, equivalent to 13, 200 gallon streams. Popu- lation at that time 45,000.
(d.) At Worcester the greatest number of streams ever used at a fire was understood to be 18. Population 73,000.
(e.) At Providence, at fire Feb. 1888, Mr. Shedd thinks it probable 22 streams were used. Population 120,000.
In Journal of New England Water Works Association, Mr. Dexter Brackett calls attention to the fact that at the fire of Nov. 28th, 1889, nearly double the number of streams which this rule of Mr. Shedd’s would call for, were actually used, viz., 86 streams of 233 gallons each were used. Mr. Brackett further says that ‘the area covered by this fire was small [3 34 acres,] and I see no reason why a similar fire might not occur in any smaller city containing nigh buildings on narrow streets.”
Since preparing this paper we have been pleased to note the conclusions of the eminent — engineer Mr. J.T. Fanning, who gives in his address before the American Water
orks Association the following table:
Population. Fire Streams under about 54 Ibs , nozzle pressure.
4,000 to 10,000 7 to 10
10,000 to 50,000 10 to 14
50,000 to 100,000 14 to 18
100,000 to 150,000 18 to 25 Better than by data based on population, the question of the number of streams which it should be possible to concentrate at any one point, as well as the question of the total number of fire streams to be provided for the city, can be best solved by a tour around the given city, studying out the spots where a large number of streams would be needed to check a conflagration which may be conceived to have so got beyond control as to hold some one of
the largest buildings in flames from top to bottom and from end to end.
The liability of two firesin progress at the same time in one fire district, must be recognized, and allowance for the breaking off of the small service pipes extending into the buildings wrecked, must also be made. The equivalent of one or two good streams may easily be thus wasted. (There have been cases where a small public supply has been rendered utterly useless by the breaking, in the early stages of a fire, of a3in. ora 4 in. pipe entering a building.
As a means of avoiding the wasting of water and weakening of pressure which follows the breaking of a very large service pipe (2 inch, 3 inch, 4 inch or upward) a device similar to Fig. 2 may be used.
The essential feature is a permanent wrench F A whose handle A is con- spicuously located two or three feet above the level of the ground, so as to avoid the delay of hunting at night, perhaps, for a service gate-box covered by dirt or snow and located no one knows exactly where.
The particular form shown in Fig. 2 also makes it plain to all passers by whether the gate is open or closed.
A permanent gate operating post like this can often only be placed at the curb-stone line. Thus located itis no more of an obstruction than a hydrant or a lamp-post, but might be found so near to the fire that it could not be operated. It could be made always accessible with certainty and safety, by placing it at the opposite side of the street, to do this the service would
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION. 57
make a loop with a quarter bend each side the gate, and cross back under the main pipe-
WIISKE
4TH, RELATION OF THE FIRE SCPPLY TO THE VOLUME OF WATER NEEDED FOR THE ORDINARY SUPPLY :
The fire supply decides the size of the distribution mains.
The domestic draft in any given district to say } mile square, is but a small fraction of the possible fire draft.
The domestic draft of a townis distributed with approximate uniformity over its area.
Pipes for domestic supply alone might start with main arteries and taper down to small veins at the extremities of the area. Fire protection often demands concentrating all the water which a system can furnish at one point and this one point may happen to be almost anywhere.
It is in one case distribution, in the other, it is concentration, and in planning many works this principle of being able to concentrate the full supply at one point has not been recognized and the branch mains are too
58 JOURNAL OF THE
A single good 1} in. & 45 lbs. 250 gallon fire stream takes as much water as would be needed on the average for-the ordinary domestic suppiy of a population of siz thousand, (at 60 gallons per day to each person. )
It is the common experience of water works where complete pump records are kept or where there is other means of noting the hourly flow, to find that the maximum draft, (as for instance during two or three hours on Monday morning), or in a suburban district, for an hour or two about sunset in summer when everybody is watering his lawn) is double the mean draft for the 24 hours. (Sometimes it is 2} times the average consumption for the year.)
A sufficient fire supply should be provided in addition to this maximum domestic consumption; but in cases where to supply each additional fire stream involves an expenditure which cannot well be met, it is not unreason- able to take some chances that the worst kind of a fire will not start at the hour of maximum consumption, and thus one might scale down somewhat on the estimate given on the previous page.
Still this maximum rate of domestic draft, viz., double the average dratt (or of whatever ratio of increase the actual’ record, if there be a record, may show for the district under consideration,) should always be kept in view as the basis over and above which the fire supply is to be secured.
A somewhat mistaken feeling of security sometimes arises from an exhi- bition of the number of streams which can be thrown from newly installed works before the domestic draft has fairly begun, and I have seen officials deceive themselves in testing a direct pumping system by first taking two or three hours to get a fresh, bright fire under the boilers and to get the standpipa full, and to get everything in readiness for an exhibition.
CAPACITY OF ELEVATED RESERVOIRS FOR FIRE PROTECTION,
With an elevated distributing reservoir forming part of the system, it becomes a much simpler problem to provide the large surplus flow needed for fire protection than when the surplus must be rapidly forced through a very long pipe, since but little if any larger conduit between the source aud the distributing reservoir over that suitable for the maximum domestic draft need be provided, and but little if any greater pump capacity is needed than that which will without regard to fire protection be provided as a precaution against break downs.
The elevated distributing reservoir also gives the very great advantage that at the outbreak of a fire the extra delivery can be supplied the instant the hydrants are opened, without waiting to fire up another boiler or waiting to throw extra pump into commission and without any of the possible derange- ments of electric alarms, or the possible derangement of machinery incident to the excitement of speeding up in response to a fire alarm.
If the reservoir can give a pressure of 80 to 100 Ibs., it possesses a great advantage in promptness and available volume and cost of maintenance over any ordinary equipment with steam fire engines.
The storage capacity for fire supply in a reservoir, need not be so very large for although the rate of draft may be high, the duration is short.
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION. 59
In isolated, private plants for the protection of large factories, itis the common practice of the Factory Mutual Insurance Companies to ask for, as the least allowable supply, water sufficient for one hour’s draft of the full number of fire streams which it is designed to supply simultaneously and that when fire pumps are fed from cisterns, these should be large enough to supply the pumps for at least one hour running at full speed.
For the protection of a city, the requirement is much greater, for although all questions as to the destruction of the building in which the fire starts can commonly be decided inside of an hour after the full number of streams are playing, the fire may meanwhile have spread to other buildings and from these the sparks may have been carried to still others.
In a conflagration lasting nine hours, very likely the total draft of water would be no more than equivalent to six hours at the maximum rate.
One million gallons storage will supply eleven standard fire streams for six hours, and for the ordinary city up to+15,000 inhabitants, a million gallons could therefore be considered an ample and prudent reserve of storage for use in fire.
To take the number of streams given in the table on page 55 and consider them as drawn for six hours, would now appear to me to be a reasonable basis on which to decide the maximum allowance for fire protectionin an elevated reservoir supplied through a long conduit, or by surface water or springs.
If on the other hand the reservoir (or standpipe) can in an emergency be fed by reserve pumps, then it might be that one hour’s supply for the full number of streams could be regarded as ample, and as margin enough to cover the interval while starting the reserve boilers and pumps.
The above mentioned volumes of water might be small under circum- stances which it is possible to conceive, but in this whole matter we must commonly steer a difficult course between burdensome expense on one hand and more or less remote possibilities on the other.
Against the more remote of the possibilities it is true economy to “run for luck” and put out trust in insurance to distribute a possible loss.
Such records of actual draft in time of fire as we have been able to find, although interesting, are too incomplete to found a rule upon.
Sometimes a small draft will apparently haye sufficed for a large fire, when in truth the reason that the fire was so large may have been that the supply of water was so small, or again an extra large draft may have been due to the opening of so many hydrant streams that the pressure was so drawn down by friction through inadequate mains, that the jets, though big enough, were too feeble to reach the heart of the fire.
The total volume used may vary greatly according to whether the firemen shut off the streams as soon as there isno more good they can do, or keep them playing as long as steam rises from the ruins,
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NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION
DISTANCE AND POSITION OF HYDRANTS.
In many cities the street hydrants are too far apart and there are too few hyd ants around the centers of value,
The arbitrary and not altogether reasonable custom of basing the compen- sation which the water works receive for its fire protection, not on value protected or on cost of works, but solely upon the number of hydrants, and establishing for the use of each hydrant an annual rental which on an average, equals the total cost of buying and setting a hydrant, has had much to do with keeping hydrants too far apart.
If the statement which has been made, that take the average of American water works, the hydrants average one to 800 feet of pipe, is true, then it might almost be said that an extra hydrant ought to be put in between every hydrant now present and its neighbor.
It is true economy to be generous in the number of hydrants and thus to save money on the outlay for hose and for making good its annual depreci- ation.
Moreover, by the use of short lines of hose, there is a great gain in the efficiency of a stream by the increased force of the stream, its greater volume and the greater height and distance to which it will reach.
Good jacketed fire hose now costs about seventy-five cents per foot.
A six inch tar-coated heavy cast iron main can be laid for about seventy-five cents per foot, cost of pipe, trench, lead and laying all included.
A city can buy a good two-way hydratt for less than the price of 50 feet of good fire department hose and its water department can buy and put down 100 feet of the best six inch cast iron water pipe for just about the same price that its fire department pays for an equal length of hose.
The life of the hose will not average more than 5 to 10 years. The pipes may last 50 years.
The bed-rock facts on which our rule for spacing hydrants must rest, are that a good, stiff 1} inch stream cannot be delivered through a greater length than 300 feet of good, ordinary fire hose, unless there is more than 100 lbs. pressure at the hydrant.
And that a good, stiff 1} inch standard stream of 250 gallons per minute cannot be pushed through more than 400 feet of even the very best and smoothest hose by a hydrant pressure of 100 ibs.
The water works giving a hydrant pressure of more than 100 lbs. are comparatively few, and the liability of accident is so increased that itis asa general rule advisable not to exceed 100 Ibs. hydrant pressure.
The average New England pressure is only about 75 lbs., therefore if one would use hose lines more than 300 feet long, he must sacrifice in the power or size and the efficiency of the jet, or must use a steam fire engine to give it an extra push.
Even with the best ordinary steam fire engines a really good stream can rarely be obtained in ordinary work at the end of 600 feet of hose while working at its rated tull delivery in gallons.
A seven-hundred-gallon-engine may do it when playing only one 250 gallon
62 JOURNAL OF THE
stream, or rarely may doit with two streams under expert treatment at an exhibition.
This limit to the length of hose through which a good stream can be forced, *ucticates that as a rule there should be hydrants enough around or near to any very important block of buildings in a city of moderate size without steamers and with 80 to 100 pounds hydrant pressure, so that eight hose streams could be led to it without the average line of hose being more than 300 to 400 feet in length and with no one of these eight lines more than 500 feet in length.
Too often the idea has apparently been to arrange the hydrants so that no important building should be more than 500 feet away from some one of the hydrants or to arrange things so one or two streams could be put on any building. The true idea is, to so far as practicable, arrange things so that the whole power of the water works can be concentrated on any one building—and this by no means involves such expense as one might expect before investigating.
Perhaps as good a rule as any, providing the pipe sizes and the supply are adequate, would be to take the table on page 55 as a basis, and require such arrangement of the hydrants as would permit this whole number of fire streams for a small city or two-thirds of the whole number for a large city, to be concentrated on any one large and important block of buildings, with an average length of hose not exceeding from 300 to 400 feet, and with no line much over 500 feet, this being on the basis of 80 to 100 Ibs. hydrant pressure _
If steam fire engines are used, a few of the lines may be 600 feet long.
If hydrant p.<.- «+s but 60 to 70 lbs. then the hydrants should be so placed with reference i. any important building, that half the whole number of streams could be drawn through lines of hose not exeeeding 250 feet in length.
The above refers, of course, to large buildings or to the closely built part of a community.
In an outlying residence district where one building does not hazard another, two powerful streams in one building would nearly always be enough.
At least two 2-way hydrants giving four streams should however, be always provided, partly so that one hydrant may be available though the oter is deranged or frozen.
(This ever present possibility that a hydrant may be deranged or frozen is not only a strong reason for not stretching them out long distances apart but is a good reason for preferring two 2-way hydrants to one 4-way hydrant.)
As 200 gallon streams or even 175 gallons and 30 lbs. pressure streams would serve fairly well for a dwelling, we could tolerate a spacing that would require a 500 foot length of hose from the house to the most distant of the two hydrants.
Thus in a suburban district containing detached dwellings, the hydrants should seldom if ever be placed over 500 feet apart—400 feet would be a better average—and within a compact commercial or manufacturing district, it may bs true economy to place them only 250 feet apart.
We. believe there are many communities among those having a water
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION. 63
pressure of 70 to 80 Ibs. where 2-way hydrants very near together (200 feet) and large mains could be so arranged as to afford better protection than an ordinary number of steam fire engines and that the annua! interest on the increased cost of the larger pipes and the double number of hydrants would be less than cost and annual maintenance of engines, engine companies and extra } 9se.
It «, also to be strongly urged that hydrants be located on the ground inste.i of on a map by spacing off exactly even distances, they can often be move.’ back and forth 25 or even 100 feet with great advantage or can be staggered first on one side of the s‘reet and then on the other, and can there- by be got away from too close proximity to the buildings of special danger.
In the preceding paragraphs we have considered the building which is farthest from the hydrants or the most unfavorably located of any in the square. This being provided for as above, the average building would be served by still shorter lengths of hose.
At nineteen out of twenty ordinary fires, and possibly at forty-nine out of fifty fires, such a liberal number of hydrants would not be needed, but at the six million dollar fire of November 28tb, 1889, in Boston’s Dry Goods district, it was found of the utmost value for the fifty-two steamers in use to be able to draft the eighty streams from the hydrants and to play through no hose line over 600 feet long, and the fire was held to an area of about 34 acres on which a volume of water was poured equivalent to flooding it 12} feet deep.
At the great fire in Lynn in 1889, of which I was also an eye witness, the long lines of hose were of the greatest disadvantage, and after going from point to point studying the fire and the means to control it, my judgment upon the streams being thrown on the fire, was that not one in four could be called a really good tire stream.
A municipal hydrant system needs to be designed for more than the ordi- nary fire. It should be desig:..d to cope with the extroardinary fire and to overtake it and hold it in check even after “| has got one or two hours start of the firemen, for even then with the fire depe ‘ment and the citizens aroused, it may prevent a sweeping conflagration.
The percentage of increase in the total cost of a municipal water works needed to enable it to do this, is not nearly so large as might be supposed.
A FEW EXAMPLES IN HYDRANT LOCATION :
To see how the rule which we have devised from general principles, works in practice: 1st. Take a village or city intersected by cross streets, as in Fig 3. Obviously the best places for hydrants are at the street corners, since a line of hose can thence be led off so conveniently in either direction required, and since there is no delay hunting for the nearest hydrant where they are so conspicuously located.
Acommon size fora city square is ‘about 250 x 550 to centres of streets or with the blocks themselves, 500 x 200 feet, and the following sketch will therefore serve as a fair illustration.
JOURNAL. OF THE
Hose 400 ft. tong] |
1st. » Street Hose 350 ft. long
Hose 100 ft. long,
SS E Hose 250 ft.
long
ke —-7—-500 FT:-—-- ok
Suppose a fire to exist in the building marked A, if the hydrants are all 2-way, we see that with hydrants only at street corners, eight streams can be concentrated upon A and use lines not exceeding 400 feet in length, while four more streams making twelve in all, could be ran in from C and D with
lines of hose about 550 feet long. Or for a building near a corner as B :
2 100 foot lines would deliver extra powerful streams.
4 more streams would be had through lines 200 to 350 feet long.
2 ‘6 “cc 66 “ “ “ec ‘ce 500. «6 “
4 “ec 6e se t¢ 66 ne sé 600 ‘é “s or 12 streams in all.
A skillful fireman would use 1} inch nozzles on the two 100 foot lines of hose and 1 inch nozzles on the 600 foot lines and 1} in. on the others.
The foregoing» would serve well for the most important buildings that are ordinarily found in a city of up to say 15,000 inhabitants.
The above arrangement is possible only with the most favorable street plan or with rectangular blocks of moderate size and cross streets near to- gether. With a less favorable street plan the hydrants must be placed nearer together and more hydrants must be used.
When we consider a great city and the higher buildings with larger indi- vidual floor areas and stocks of greater value which are found therein, and also the greater havoc which a spreading conflagration would entail, a much greater concentration of hydrant streams will be found necessary.
This can be accomplished by placing an intermediate hydrant at the middle of the two long sides of each city square, or by the use of 3-way or 4-way hy drants. ;
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION. 65
In Fig. 4 for instance, with 2-way hydrants, 22 streams could be concen- trated upon F and its neighbors, 12 of which would be through lines not over 300 feet long and none of which exceed 550 feet. And so in almost any case, by a little study, it will be found that the generous supply of fire streams called for on page 55, can be provided for and concentrated without entailing any such burdensome,expense as might without investigation be supposed.
8 inch mains in all streets intersecting with 8 inch cross connections in all avenues. Gates at each corner for cutting out any broken pipes and checking waste. l Ii oy ies
J ist. © Street ——I6
2nd_°Street
Avenue © Vic
3rd_® Street
\——500-FT: 4th Street
| ' ibe +.C0., BUFFALO, W-¥.] Fic. 4.
As to the hydrants themselves, we believe that a post hydrant having a feed pipe and ariser of ample size can be constructed so as to practically give just as ample a supply of water as a Lowry or other flush hydrant and avoid the complication and bother of carrying a chuck.
A post hydrant moreover, avoids the possible delay incident to finding and digging out a frozen man-hole plate at midnight, from its covering of snow or mud.
And as to the argument that a post hydrant forms a dangerous obstruction at the curb-stone line of the street, and therefore is inadmissable, we fail to see that they area more dangerous obstruction than lamp posts, telegraph poles or the poles supporting the wires of the electric street railways.
The post hydrant is conspicuous, everybody becomes familiar with its loca- tion, and if properly constructed the inspection of a moment will tell whether or not it is frozen.
We do believe, however, that very many of the post hydrants now in. the market are susceptible of a little improvement in design which would lessen the friction loss through them, and farthermore, we hold that it is a mistaken economy to set even a 2-way hydrant with-less than a 6-inch feed pipe and smaller than a 5} inch riser.
Four-inch risers should be allowed to die out of the market by neglect.
An eight-inch feed pipe, a six-inch riser and round corners leading to the hose nipple will often be true economy even for a 2 -way hydrant where it is desired to use streams direct from the hydrant and where the pressure does not exceed 75 lbs. per square inch.
65 JOURNAL OF THE
THE SIZES OF PIPES NEEDED FOR THE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM OF A PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY, IN VIEW OF FIRE PROTECTION :
Consideration of fire protection generally determine the minimum pipe sizes proper for the distribution mains.
One good 1} inch stream takes as much water as 3,500 population would draw for domestic purposes, on Monday morning.
The maximum domestic draft of water, thus has little weight in deter- mining the proper size of the distribution mains, although it is the chief factor in deciding upon the size for a long main pipe between a source of supply and the city.
The relative elevation of the source of water supply or the water pressure which the pumps can afford, has much less influence upon the size proper for the distribution mains than might appear at first thought, and it is seldom that any substantial reduction from the sizes mentioned below will be judicious, even though the pressure be high. (As 125 lbs. for instance.)
If high pressure is available (and a working pressure of 80 to 100 lbs. is always well worth securing even at considerable extra cost) this high pressure should not be taken to compensate for small mains but had far better be utilized in permitting hose streams to be taken direct from the hydrant and thus dispensing in large part at least, with the delay and extra expense inci- dent to the use of steam fire engines.
In the opinion of the leading engineers and of the water works superin- tendents of the widest experience, it is pretty well settled that under ordi-
nary circumstances nothing smaller than a six inch pipe should ever be laid as a main to supply hydrants.
Four inch pipe should never be used for a hydrant main, unless it be to protect scattered, detached dwellings in situations similar to a country village or where the closest economy of first cost must be practiced in order to get any general water works pipe system at all, and in these cases it should be elearl y understood that starting with say 75 lbs., a line of four-inch pipe one- half mile long so soon as it becomes old and roughened by rust can only deliver water enough for a single 100 gallon fire stream three-fourths inch in diameter, which is too small to extinguish anything more than a dwelling house fire or often can do more than protect the neighbors, while the original fire is left to burnitself out.
In patching up an old water works to make it serve the modern require- ments the old four-inch pipe can often be allowed to remain by feeding it at both ends or at frequent intervals by a larger cross connection so that any hydrant on the four-inch pipe will in effect be fed by two four-inch pipes, the water flowing to it in both directions.
A quarter inch in thickness of deposits gathers just about as quickly upon a four-inch pipe as upon a six-inch pipe and it reduces the water carrying capacity in far greater proportion on the four-inch pipe than on the six-inch.
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION. 67
Within a crowded and valuable metropolitan district, a diameter of eight-inch is the smallest that can be recommended for the general net work or ‘‘ gridiron” of intersect- ing pipes, having in view the deterioration in water carrying capacity which occurs in time with nearly ail waters.
For valuable metropolitan districts a pipe so small as eight inches is suitable only when forming part of a general net work whose intersections are not far apart, say not more than 300 feet in one direction, by 800 feet in the other. When the cross connections are smaller than eight inches or farther than 8U0 feet apart, a ten- inch pipe may be needed. Along the borders of the gridiron the size should be larger. This reinforcement by cross-connections, is of the utmost im- portance and if absent as at C, Fig. 5, it may require a 16 inch pipe to afford the same delivery as a gridiron of six-inch pipes at B.
Within almost any suburban residence district where there are frequent cross connections, also within compactly built cities of medium size and even those of large size and of medium hazard, excellent protection may be afforded by a gridiron of six-inch pipes along each of those streets running in one direction, intersecting with pipes eight inches in diameter, in each transverse street. The maximum’ of economy in pipe will be secured if the six-inch pipe runs lengthwise of the blocks.*
For small cities in which the streets run so that frequent cross-connections are possible, very satisfactory protection can be had by a net work of pipes none of which exceed six inches in diameter; but along the margin of the gridiron there should be a few main arteries of larger sizes and the size of a few of the pipes near any large hazardous building as a valuable factory or warehouse may need be increased.
This use of six-inch pipe, however, presupposes that the six-inch pipe makes a complete circuit about each street block which is to be protected, so that the water will flowin toward the point of heavy draft from nearly all directions,
To illustrate that a complete gridiron of six-inch pipe under a favorable street system will afford a large supply for the hydrants at any one spot, take the assumed case shown in Fig. 5 and supposea very heavy fire at A.
Ist. Suppose the four 2-way hydrants immediately around A all drafting, this gives eight streams with an average length of hose about 300 or 400 feet.
Tracing out the circuit shown by the dotted line nearest A we see that this water flows in toward A through the six or seven 6-inch pipes and the 2,000 gallons per minute delivered by the 8 streams would average but 330 gal-
* Lawrence, Mass., (50,000 population, engaged principally in cotton manufacture ; dwell- ings compact, mostly of wood furnishes an excellent example of the use of six and eight inch pipes in this manner. Nothing smaller than six-inch pipe is used, nearly all the pipes run- ning east and west are six inches, and none running north and south or crosswise of the blocks are less than eight inches. The blocks average about 550 by 250 feet to centres of streets. Furthermore, a 20-inch main artery runs from the pumping station down past the large factories to a point midway along the canal, where it is reinforced by a 20-inch main coming from the reservoir down through the heart of the city.
In Boston, the general system toward which the engineers are now working is to cross a given territory by 12 inch mains about one-fourth mile apart, and then gridiron across be- tween these by eight or ten-inch pipes in each intervening street in the compact valuable portion of the city or by six or eight inch pipes in the outlying districts.
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Pipes all 6 In. except as otherwise marked at
12in.} 10in. | 8in. | Gin.
2-way Hyds. 150 ft. apart.
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lons or about 33 feet per second for.each pipe, calling for a-loss of head of about one-half pound per 100 feet of clean pipe or say 1.0 Ib. per 100 feet when pipe is somewhat corroded.
Thus the loss of pressure, within a circnit of from 300 to 500 feet around the fire, would not exceed from three to five pounds at most.
Going out to the next circuit shown by dotted line, we see that here are nine pipes pouring their water in toward A so that outside this circuit the velocity averages about 2.6 feet per second and the loss(with pipe a little rusty) about 0.4 Ibs, per 100 feet.
As we take wider and wider circuits, we find more and more pipes through which the water is advancing toward the fire.
With a well planned system of cross connections the reduction of pressure under a heavy draft nearly all occurs in the immediate vicinity of the fire.
Thus probably all told, the reduction of pressure which a gauge on pipes near A would show when eight streams were flowing would, speaking roughly, be about 6 lbs. for new pipes or 10 lbs. for old and somewhat rusty pipes, lower than the pressure when hydrants were closed.
A was taken at a point near the outside of the gridiron.
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION. 69
If we had taken the four hydrants around B for illustration, these would have been fed by eight pipes, or had twelve lines of hose been run from the six nearest hydrants, none of these lines of hose would need be over 600 or 800 feet long, and the twelve hydrant streams would be supplied through ten 6-inch pipes.
The above city was assumed to have very frequent cross connections and a very symmetrical system of street mains. In many of our New England towns the hills and valleys have compelled a growth radiating outward in narrow strips or in ways which forbid any such reinforcement or the flow as we have here been considering, and in these cases much larger pipes will, on computation be found necessary to give an equal delivery at the hydrants.
In deciding upon the diameter needed for a street main in a given locality, the possible reinforcement through cross connections and parallels must al- ways be studied if economy is to be secured.
A block located in the midst of a network of 6-inch pipes may sometimes be much more efficiently served than one past which runs a single line of 12-inch pipe. Thus the block B is much better supplied than the factory C. Fig. 5.
The main arteries within the city have often been continued of larger diameter than really necessary after once reaching a point well within the main gridiron system.
Thus in Fig. 5 we see that although the 16-inch main goes but a little way into the city, the distribution does not suffer.
Often the money which these large internal arteries would absorb, can be more advantageously applied in keeping up the size of the secondary mains, or in reinforcing them by well planned cross connections.
THE CENTRAL SYSTEM VS. THE OUTSIDE SYSTEM OF MAIN ARTERIES.
In a system of sewerage or a system of water supply which was to supply numerous buildings and which was not designed for fire protection, the system of distribution, which may be likened to the trunk and branches of a tree, or the veins in a leaf, and consisting of a large central artery feeding smaller diverging arteries and these in turn the distribution pipes in the sev- eral streets, would undoubtedly be the most economical to install.
In fire protection,, it is the concentration of a large volume rather than its di- vided distribution for which we must provide, and the study of a street plan like Fig. 5 will show that the locality which needs a specially large pipe theleast, is the central portion of the gridiron where the 8-inch or 6-inch mains pour in their water from every side. Each 6-inch pipe on which stands a hydrant being in effect two 6 inch pipes leading to that hydrant.
Commonly, of course, the central portion of a city is most valiable and needs the most ample protection, but this is not always the case.
In a sea port or a river town, the commerce or the factories often make a marginal street the one where protection is the most important.
On such a marginal street we can get aid from only one parallel street in- stead of two as in Figs. 2 and 3, and should therefore not only have a large pipe, but an extra number of hydrant outlets, therefore the hydrant locations
70 JOURNAL OF THE
and pipe sizes for such marginal streets should always be designed on the principles just described, by taking a plan of the district, marking thereon such number of hydrants, each with such number of outlets as are needed to concentrate the full number of streams thereon without exceeding the hose lengths already stated, and then provide pipes of sufficient area to deliver this without undue loss.
Another great advantage of placing a circuit of main arteries half way around the circumference of the gridiron instead of feeding everything from the centre outward, is that as the city extends its borders we shall be in far better shape to give proper protection to the new streets.
A FEW PROBLEMS IN COMPUTING A DIVIDED SUPPLY.
The following is not of general interest perhaps but my reason for pre- senting it is that men engaged on practical work have presented similar prob- lems and asked how they could best be solved. This is one way. Others may have better.
Where a pipe system is complicated so that the flow of water is divided and comes to the given point over several routes, or when the pipes are old, then any precise computation of the friction loss under a very heavy draught is uncertain, very complicated and generally unsatisfactory.
One day’s experimenting will often give results more trustworthy than can be obtained in a week of computing. Often, however, the delivery and friction must be known when it is impossible to experiment or before the pipes are laid.
There are often cases where the pipe system is simple or where itis of a fairly large size in proportion to the required draught when computations of much value may be easily made.
One great source of uncertainty in computations on pipe which is not new is that the conducting power varies greatly, or with the same size and kind of pipe, and with exactly the same rate of flow in gallons, the friction loss may be twice as great in a pipe which is rough as in another which is smooth.
The mere roughening of the inside of a pipe can double the friction loss even though the size be not diminished by deposits. A roughened surface sets the water whirling, eddying and tumbling over itself in a way wkich greatly increases the force needed to move it along.
Some waters corrode pipes much more rapidly than others. Thus it is said that in Baltimore even uncoated water pipe remains clean after 50 years of service ; in Boston an uncoated 4-inch pipe may become almost choked up by tubercles in half that time. A properly tar-coated cast-iron pipe will, however, often keep nearly free from tubercles in Boston for 20 years.
GRAPHICAL COMPUTATION OF FRICTION LOSS IN A COMPOUND PIPE.
Case 1.—Loss in a compound pipe.—What will be the loss of head, due to friction between A and D in Fig. 6?
A precise and accurate equation to represent this loss would be very un- wieldy, and imgeneral it may be said that for problems of this kind, long-
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION. 71
jointed equations are unnecessary and of little practical use, although they are of very great value for tmaining students in the application of algebraic expression, and therefore have a proper place in the text-books.
Short, simple equations and graphical solutions, joined and worked to- gether by process of reasoning, so that a frequent inspection is had of the numerical values of the different elements as we go along, are much more convincing and less liable to the introduction of errors.
BD. 900ft.of6in. pipe >C.
s ze
i oO
in. A. 3 J Source Pump E. |___ 1000 <s of Reservoir cs 8in. D
i| iM k__1000 ft. 2N. ore. Sle, Cates Fia. 6.
For the present purpose we may neglect that variation in the co-efficient of flow which depends upon the velocity being low or high, for the effect of this would be obscured by the greater influence of even such small differences in the smoothness of the interior of some portion of the pipe as are often con- cealed from observation.
We may therefore assume that the frictional absorption of pressure within any given pipe system varies directly as the square of the quantity drawn through it. With the high velocity of flow common during fire duty, this assumption comes very near the truth.
This general truth —viz., that the loss of head by friction is proportional to the square of the velocity, applies not only to a simple pipe, but is substantially true for combinations of pipes of different sizes joined either by taper re- ducers or by sudden contractions, or for pipes containing obstructions and curves. Itis also useful to keep in mind that for cases of a pipe system in combination with a discharging orifice or with a series of discharging orifices, so long as all the discharging orifices lie at substantially the same elevation, the opposite of the above proposition is true and of wide application :
Viz., the quantity discharged through a given pipe system, and the orifices in connection therewith is very nearly proportional to the square root of the pressure measured at any convenient point anywhere along the pipe system, pro- viding the pressure be reckoned from the level of the orifices,
As one illustration, take the fire stream tables published in the Journal of the New England Water Works Association of March, 1889. We see that, taking the same piece of hose connected to the same nozzle, the discharge varies as the square root of the pressure at the hydrant.
If, for instance, the case of al} inch nozzle on 300 feet of best hose is taken, and first, correcting the hydrant pressure for any difference in eleva- tion which there may be between the gauge at the hydrant and the point of discharge, we see that, with a hydrant pressure of 65 pounds, 234 gallons per minute is discharged, while to discharge 468 gallons per minute, or double the above quantity, a hydrant pressure of four times as great will be required.
72 JOURNAL OF THE
Or take a room full of automatic sprinklers, and first allowing in each case for any fixed difference in elevation between the pressure gauge and the level of the discharging orifices, we find that the same system of sprinklers which discharges 1,000 gallons per minute, with a pressure of 80 pounds per square inch, will discharge 500 gallons per minute witha pressure of 20 pounds. ;
Referring again to Fig. 6, take at random any reasonable flow and compute the friction loss in A BCD. If we use Weston’s tables, based on Darcy, (and the writer regards them as the most convenient tables which have ever yet been published) but translate pressures into pounds per square inch and add 50 per cent. to Weston’s values, which are for smooth straight pipe, to allow for crooks and moderate corrosion, we find the loss from
Ato Bin 500 ft. of 8 in. pipe carrying 500 gal. P- M......-.. == 1,80 BtoDin1500“ 6
Total loss along ABC D On a piece of cross section paper and upon any convenient scale plot the point Q with distances 24.43 lbs. and 500 gal. Assuming other rates of flow and computing the friction loss in each we plot other points and through them draw the curve ABCD. (Or moreeasily we may get the points for this curve by making it a curve of squares and saying that at half the first number of gallons the loss will be } as great. At } will be 1-9 as great, etc.)
Ps per minute flowing. Fia. 7. Next construct a similar curve for the loss along AED. Itis best to plot
this with the same ordinates but with abscissas measured off in the opposite
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION. 73
direction. The loss in A E D, 1,000 feet of 8-inch pipe, 500 gallons, is 3.56 pounds, and for 1,000 gallons is 14.24 pounds ; thus a curve, O§ A, is quickly constructed.
Now the condition is that the loss of pressure from A to D, around by the circuit, A B C D,is equal to the loss in A E D, and for any given loss of head, as P=21.25 pounds—the delivery of the pipe, ABCD, will be represented by P B, while the delivery of AE D will be represented by the abscissa, PA. Conversely, if we have any given quantity, as 1,100 gallons per minute, and mark off a distance proportional to it by the scale of the new abscissas on the edge of a strip of paper, and then slide this strip of paper up along the plotting, keeping its edge parallel to the axis of O X, until the two marks coincide with points on the two curves, as ST, it is obvious that O V will represent the loss of head, and that the distances, U S and U T, will give the respective quantities flowing in each of the two pipes.
For use in further computations, it may be well to plot a new curve, O M, with ordinates the same as for the two curves just described, but whose ab- scissas are the sums of those for the other curves.
This new curve can be constructed in a minute or two by merely taking off the abscissas from the two other curves on the edge of a strip of paper, and then sliding this along on the level of the same ordinate.
Next, to get the loss of pressure between the source, M, and the discharge, N, it is the very simple problem of the loss from M to A plus the loss from A to D, determined as just described, plus the loss from D to N. Assume any reasonable number of gallons at random, say 1,000. Then the loss from M to A, 3,000 feet 12-inch pipe, 1,000 gallons, is 5.27 pounds; from A to D by the curve, A D, in Fig. 5, 7.37 pounds; from D to N, 1,000 feet 6-inch pipe, 1,000 gallons, 60.36 pounds; or the total loss is 73 pounds. This is plotted on cross-section paper, and a curve of squares drawn through the point, giving a diagram, Fig. 8, from which the loss from M to N can be de- termined under any rate of flow.
0 2 s
74 JOURNAL OF THE
Case II.—Next take the more complicated arrangement shown in Fig. 9.
Approx. center of
42) location of points O” of Discharge,
M. as
«i Sin. or Reservoir E.
Here the loss from B to I must first be computed on the basis of some assumed quantity, say 500 gallons per minute, by the methods already outlined. In this manner we obtain the curves BF Iand BG HI of Fig. 10. Thus, loss in B G H, 1,000 feet of 6-inch pipe, with 500 gallons per minute, will be 15.07 pounds.
. HI, 250 feet 4-inch pipe, 500 gallons, will be 30.72 pounds; total loss in circuit B G H I, 45.79 pounds.
For B F I, 800 feet of 6-inch pipe, 500 gallons, loss will be 12.06 pounds.
Plotting the point in each curve thus found, we pass a curve of squares through each and obtain the two curves shown in the cut, and by combining these we get the full curve BtoL
Next assume at random some reasonable quantity as 750 gallons per minute, and compute the loss inA Band ICD. ForAB this amounts to 4.63 pounds, for I C to 10.18 pounds, and for C D to 5.44 pounds, or a total of 20.25 pounds. Adding to this the loss for this same quan- tity shown on the combined curve B I, which for 750 gallons is 11.6 pounds, we have 11.6 + 20.25—31.85 pounds, as the total loss when 750 gal- lons flows from A around B and C to D, and passing a curve of squares through this point we have the curveAGFCD. Next we compute the loss in A E D, with some random quantity, say 500 gallons. For A E this is 0.69 pounds, for E D it is 24.14 pounds, or a total of 24.83 pounds. Now, by our curve AGFCD, etc., wesee that when a difference of 24.83 pounds exists between the pressures at A and D, 656 gallons per minute will flow around B and C, which, added to the 500 gallons flowing around E, give 1,156 gallons that the combination of three pipes will conduct from A to D under a differ- ence of pressure of 24.83 pounds.
Now to find the total from M to N, we may as a starting point for the curve assume a new quantity at random, or take the 1,156 gallons just used. We see by the tables that with 1,156 gallons the loss in 5,000 feet of 12-inch pipe will be 11.72 pounds, and in 1,000 feet of 8-inch pipe it will be 18.42 pounds, or a total of 30.12 pounds, which, plus the loss from A to D, 24.83 pounds makes a grand total of 54.95 pounds. Passing a line of squares through this point we obtain the curve M to N.
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION.
Gallons per min. flowing Fie 10.
From the various curves of Fig. 10, we can instantly answer all questions as to how much the static pressure from a reservorr at M, Fig. 9, will be lessened under any given draught at N. Thus we see that with one 250-gallon stream flowing at P, it will be pulled down 2.5 pounds, with two streams 10 pounds, with four streams 41 pounds, and with six streams 91 pounds. Or we find that under a static reservoir pressure of 100 pounds at N, not more than two good fire streams can be drawn at N, for hose alone, or not more than six streams with a steamer drawing from the pipes. Or we see that, with a pump at M, 80 + 41 or 121 pounds pressure, would be required to force water enough for four fire streams through the pipe system and still have a first- class pressure of 80 pounds at the hydrant. Again, we can see from the dia- gram that, with 1,000 gallons being drawn at N, while the total loss is 41 pounds, the loss from A to D is but 18.4 pounds, and that of this 1,000 gallons
76 JOURNAL OF THE
430 gallons flows by E, while the remaining 570 gallons flows by B. We see by marking this off on the edge of a strip of paper and sliding it so its ends coincide with the curves B F I and B G HI, that only 200 gallons of the water will come by way of G H.
The diagram thus serves very conveniently to answer almost instantly any question regarding the proportion of the flow which each pipe in the system carries or the loss due to friction within any part of the system.
It will be found in practice that the problem is often less simple than that just solved, by reason of variations in elevations of the ground or the greater complications in the cross connections of the pipes.
Allowance is easily made for differences of elevation, but the problem of the subdivision of the flow may readily be so indeterminate that an exact solu- tion is not worth attempting.
a _H.
/
Outlet
Fie. 11.
If in Fig. 9 the pipe G H had returned into a pipe other than that from which it branched off at B, and had, for instance, returned into the pipe D N, at R, as in Fig. 11, the problem could not be solved by the comparatively sim- ple method just outlined, and the mathematical relation concerning the subdi™ vision of the flow in the three different channels would appear almost hope- lessly complicated.
Often, however, it may give a convenient solution, to ignore temporarily a pipe like B C D, or whichever pipe may be least efficient for the supply in question, and see what the loss of head in the other two would be. By such approximations and ar exercise of judgment one can get at the state of things with an error inside of five pounds, which often may be near enough.
When the pipe which “‘short-circuits” the loop has its ends at proportionally the same distance down on the hydraulic grade between A and R, then since the pressure would be the same at both its ends, no flow would take place through it, and it could be ignored as just suggested, without error.
In the more complicated common practical case, a man whose judgment has been trained by a study of hydraulic problems, can often ignore certain of the cross connections and make certain assumed rearrangements all on the safe side, as for instance, in Fig. 11, it could be assumed that B G H returned into the main line at D instead of R, in which case the problem is readily solved ; or taking the network of pipes certain main lines of delivery toward the joint in question can be mapped out and the other pipes either neglected or included in a lump allowance, such that the whole computation will be on the safe side.
NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION. 77
Any little niceties of computation would be far out-weighed by possible dif- ferences in conducting power or by differences in the formulas of different au- thorities.
Thus far we have treated the problem as though the ground were level. In the question of how much the pressure at a given point will be re- duced under a given draught, the elevation of the pipes enters only indirectly and to allow for differences of elevation in a hilly town after having computed our hydraulic grades is so simple a problem as to require no special mention.
DISCUSSION.
Mr. Brackett. In connection with Mr. Freeman’s paper, which is cer- tainly a very valuable and instructive one, some facts which show the present status of the distribution system in some of the larger cities of the country, and how far many of the present systems fall short of what he has shown us they ought to be, may be of interest. To begin with the question of the size of pipe, although it seems to be decided that 3 and 4-inch pipe should not be used for distribution, it is nevertheless a fact that some of the larger cities, and I might cite Baltimore as a shining example, use a very large proportion of small pipe and are adding it in large quantities year after year. The tables on page 78 give the mileage of the different sizes of pipe in the larger cities of the country and the percentages of the different sizes
Baltimore has about 250 miles or 56 per cent. of its mileage less than 6 inches in diameter. The percentage of 12-inch pipe in the different cities is as follows: New York, 24.6; Chicago, 6.5; St. Louis, 11; Boston, 28.6. Boston has the largest percentage of 12-inch pipe of any of the large cities of the country.
In considering the question of hydrants, there is not only to be considered the distance apart at which the hydrants should be placed, but also the size and number of outlets or steamer connections which are provided with the hydrants. In some of the cities hydrants are used that have only one 23-inch connection. In New York all the hydrants which were put in dur- ing the last year have simply one 23-inch connection. They have to-day about 6800 hydrants of that pattern out of 8700, and the barrel of the hy- drant is, I think, 34 inches in diameter. In Brooklyn all of the hydrants have one 23-inch hose connection, while in Boston the post hydrants have two 24-inch and one 4-inch outlet. The Lowry hydrants used in Boston have a 9-inch barrel and are set in the centre of the street. They have four steamer connections, two 4-inch and two 23. By using hydrants to which four steamers can be connected, the fire department is enabled to mass the steamers. As Mr. Freeman has stated, at the Thanksgiving fire 52 steamers were placed within 600 feet of the fire, and they might have all been placed within 500 feet if it had been desirable
For the purpose of comparison, a study has been made of the distribu- tion systems of some of the large cities of the country with a view of showing how many steamers could be massed within 500 feet of given points. A distance of 500 feet would give in practice many lines of hose not
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NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION. 79
exceeding 300 feet, because a fire of any magnitude would cover area enough so the lines of hose would be shorter. These distances are all measured from one centre. In the city of Brooklyn, for example, more than 15 steamers or 30 streams cannot be concentrated within 500 feet of any pointin the city. Ihave selected 14 points, all in or near the business por- tion of different cities, and investigation shows that the number of steamers which would receive an adequate supply, that is, a supply of 500 gallons for each steamer, or two streams, varies from 60 down to 5. The figures for the different cities are as follows: New York, from 10 to 60; Chicago, 13 to 35; Philadelphia, 7 to 23; Brooklyn, 5 to 15; St. Louis, 4 to 19; Boston, 25 to 60; Baltimore, from 3 to 37; Detroit, from 5 to 43. In most of the cities the hydrants are placed farther apart than 300 feet. Hydrants in the busi- ness portion of any city should not be placed more than from 150 to 200 feet apart.
Mr. Freeman advocates the use of post hydrants in preference to the Lowry pattern, and for a city or town having wide side-walks or where the hydrants cannot have constant supervision, I do not differ from his opinion, but for narrow streets and side-walks in a large city, the Lowry hydrant is preferable.
The post hydrant is a more dangerous obstruction to pedestrians than lamp posts or telegraph poles on account of their height. A person can hardly fall over a telegraph post although he may run against it.
The post hydrant is not easily accessible to more than two steamers while the Lowry will accommodate four, and in order to concentrate a given number of steamers within any area, twice as many post hydrants will be required as would be necessary if the Lowry were used
J.T. Fanninc. A perusal of Mr. John H. Freeman’s paper on the‘: Ar- rangement of Hydrants and Water Pipes for the Protection of a City Against Fire” convinces me that it is one of those rare papers that after the first careful reading may be profitably returned to for careful study in detail.
Mr. Freeman has taught us in the text and diagrams how he has reduced water supply mathematics to the plane of simple arithmetical rules and to rapid methods of reaching reliable data governing the proportions of a Fire Protection system. Since so large a share of the expense of public water supplies for towns and small cities, and forthe suburbs of all cities is incurred to make them efficient fire checking systems the enumeration of essentials of a good system is timely.
Mr. Freeman emphasizes that there must be an ample quantity of water, six to twelve hose streamsin the small cities, and increasing to thirty to fifty streams in cities of 200,000 population and 250 to 300 gallons of water per minute for each of these streams. He emphasizes also the desirability of having forty to fifty lbs. water pressure at the play pipe.
Consider in detail these two of the suggested